The Persian Wars: the invasion of Xerxes.

Review: Some terms to know: to Medize; Peloponnesian League.

  1. The Preparations
    1. Darius's attack in 490 hardly a major event for Persia in terms of her resources. Still, the Greek victory had a negative effect [revolts in the Persia Empire] and Xerxes, his son and successor, did have to reestablish Persian control in a number of provinces (Egypt, Babylonia, and others: ACH 109A)
    2. The major issue leading up to the 'Heroic Struggle' was undenial divisions among the Greeks
      1. many Greek states Medized, i.e., they sent 'earth and water' (tokens of submission) to the Great King. This did not bode well for the Greeks. ACH 107; 109; 117). Thessaly and probably too Boiotia.
      2. Equally ominous was the reluctance of many important states (notably Corcyra and Argos) to participate in the defense of Greece.
    3. At Athens: crucial that she became a naval power during the ten intervening years; but it was also a period of internal turmoil involving trials and ostracism, constitutional reform and the discovery of a major silver deposit. All related events. The decision to use the silver to build ships (and not to distribute the money to citizens) was crucial, for at Salamis Athens could muster 200 ships, as many as were available from the rest of Greece. On the importance of Athens to the war effort and the overall strategy, (ACH 110A).
  2. Sparta and the Greek Congress. Xerxes' intentions to invade Greece were clear and unambiguous
    1. The nature or the Greek alliance (Peloponnesian League)
      1. Spartan assembly + allies. Unanimity for action. [Note again the role of inclusion and compromise]
      2. An effective arrangement: Sparta was guaranteed support when she acted and her allies were protected against arbitrary actions of Sparta.
      3. City-states of Pelopn. were constitutional aristocracies (aka limited democracies like Sparta) and were suspicious of more radically democratic forms of government. Key terms: limited democracy, radical democracy.
    2. Delphi. Her authority considerable, choose neutrality. Oracle: if Sparta active in war, she would be sacked or a king slain. On Athens, Herod. 7, 140. "...the wooden walls.."
    3. Meeting at Hellenium (near Sparta) of all who were ready to fight. New Greek League established(ACH110B)
      1. Each state with one delegate/vote. Majority decides.
      2. Sparta to command for all campaigns.
      3. Envoys to Gelon (tyrant of Syracuse) and to Corcyra (ancient Corfu and Greek) and to Argos (the long standing rival of Sparta).
  3. The Tactical Dilemmas...:
    1. Greek strategy based on small numbers, 40,000 heavy, 70,000 light, 400 triremes, but no cavalry. Greeks had to use the "narrows", where their battle lines could not be outflanked.
    2. Persians: Herodotus suggests as many as 5 million, more likely 500,000. 180,000 combatants, the rest in support function. Of the 180,000, core was the 10,000 'Immortals' (infantry) and 10,000 horse...but also gold to bribe.
  4. As Xerxes advances, many Medize, but advance slow, five months needed to reach Themopylae (winds against Persians; Delphi holds out hope here). Demaratus (ACH 55). Late August at Thermopylae/Artemesion. Greeks send 5000 men (300 Spartans) plus 270 ship. Both sides delay (Greeks hope for full Spartan army). First storm Pegasae (400 ships lost??)--the hand of god! (so the Greeks thought). Xerxes sent 200 triremes around Euboea. Leonidas and 300 Spartans all with living sons (the oracle) sent to Central Greece. A second storm of Euboea, 200 ships lost. Nonetheless, the fall of Thermopylae [the role of Ephialtes] made Greek position in Central Greece hopeless.
  5. In 480...To Salamis (from the air). Boeotia Medizes; Athens, with much agony abandoned. Salamis or Isthmia?? Former had narrow entrance. Peloponnesians want to withdraw to Isthmia; Athenians threaten to sail to west. Themistocles' trick --Greeks demoralized. The battle of Salamis. A ship reconstructed.
  6. In 479...Plataea and Mycale. Mardonius remains in Attica; much manoevering until battle which was won by steadfastness of Spartans. Meanwhile, the Ionians had revolted and a sea-land battle fought at Mycale (ACH116b)...on same day??
  7. Consequences
    1. General:
      1. the "great patriotic victory" did not translate into a more unified and national organization.. Sparta lacked the institutions and seapower to lead effectively; Athens had both, but became aggressive and imperialistic. (ACH 110A).
      2. More significantly, the Greeks came to believe that the victory reflected the superiority of the polis as an institution, of consensual government as a system, and of hoplite phalanx as a military structure. Of, course, too the gods had favored them.
      3. At Athens especially (but not only there) the resulting self-confidence allowed / tolerated a significant level of sustained self-conscious reflection on all issues, political, moral, scientific. Had the Greeks lost..
    2. Specifically: In the years following Plataea and Mycale,
      1. the Persians were driven out of the Aegean, the Greek cities all around the Aegean were liberated.
      2. Sparta, constrained by the fear of a helot revolt, withdrew from leadership, allowing the Athenians to take the lead in a struggle that was increasing of a maritime character.
      3. By 475, there were two power blocks in the Greek world: Sparta and her Peloponnnesian allies, and Athens and her "maritime" allies.