THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND TO THE TROUBLES OF THE 4TH CENTURY

Please follow this link to a site with an interesting exhibit of Greek artifacts illustrating daily life.

One of the great paradoxes of history is that war and instability may foster innovation and material advances is civilized ('urbanized') life. Implications?

1. THE PROBLEM:
   1. No Greek state able to impose its power nor could any overarching federal principle be developed (why not?), yet without such unity the Greek states fought almost incessantly. The failure of the Greek states to combine for own salvation called for investigation. Xenophon, Isocrates, Plato, Aristotle and others all commented on problem. It was clearly perceived as being serious. ESHAG 108-9 (note the solutions proposed).
   2. An imperialist state requires a considerable margin of superiority in
      1. fighting power (men and training) ???
      2. financial reserves ???
   3. Federalism, on the other hand, was widely introduced in this period, but was never more than a regional phenomenon. E.g., Boeotia, Arcadia, Achaea (last lecture).
   4. The failure of Athens and Sparta (and eventually too of Thebes) was not that they individually became "weaker", in this period, but that the others became stronger "Ships of war, numbers of men, revenues of money, abundance of general equipment and everything else by which a city-state gauges its strength are now possible for all." --Demosthenes. But how can we account for this increase in wealth?
      1. movement from oligarchy to moderate democracy?
      2. expansion of trade? more efficient production?
      3. influx of cash?
      4. effect of stasis and war are exaggerated?
   5. In sum: Some middle-sized states enjoyed the advantages of moderate democracy and prosperity, while others became the battlegrounds of internal and external agitators. At the same time, the leading states, Sparta, Athens and Thebes, exhausted their strength trying to extend their dominion. The decline of Sparta: ESHAG 104, 106; ACG264
2. The development of trade and commerce.
   1. The general situation: Though Greece was torn, the Mediterranean world enjoyed considerable political stability as Persia dominated east and Carthage the west. Stability has its benefits.
      1. Even an "unjust" peace can bring prosperity.
      2. There were few restrictions on trade and it became extensive
         1. Increasing diplomatic ties ACH 320.
         2. Increasing frequency of commercial treaties, representation, monetary pacts, trading privileges, banking, arbitration, marine insurance, mortgaging. ACH sec 286, iii = p. 535; cf. ESHAG sec 93, p. 308.
   2. Peace was essential for development
      1. The Great King absorbed the unemployed mercenaries. Between 336 and 330, about 50,000 were in his service. They returned home with both wealth and knowledge. ACG 298;299; 317. Export of violence.
      2. States that avoided direct conflict (i.e., had limited ambitions), like Megara, became enormously wealthy. Evidence is archaeological and is not easily presented here, but see below sections IV and V.
      3. Persia to east and Carthage to west contributed to the overall stability of the Mediterranean by controlling piracy, the scourge of trade. That is the Persians subsidized a Greek fleet for this purpose.
      4. Increase in the availability of capital. From temples (ACG 327; ESHAG sec 30, p. 303); wider trading, more specialized work; re-distribution of wealth of temples.
3. Spread of Culture
   1. Wide popularity of Attic drama especially that of the 5th century and of Euripides encouraged development of the koiné, but all forms of Athenian literature of 5th and 4th century admired...the more so as Athens ceased to be a major political threat.
   2. Increasing movement of philosophers and of sophists. Yes, they taught for money (which Socrates and Plato found intolerable), but they had a generally progressive and liberal effect on life.
      1. stress on personal freedom and commercial freedom
      2. humanitarianism
      3. federalism.
   3. Isocrates: " The name "Greek" is no longer a mark of race, but of outlook and is accorded to those who share our culture rather than our blood"
      1. This marks a change in the relationship between the individual and the community; emphasis now on individual and as member of larger society.
      2. This kind of universalism and cosmopolitanism becomes extremely important for Alexander and for Christianity.
4. The Cities: outward appearance "standardized"
   1. Massive walls of fine quality, almost aesthetic, public buildings include civic center (agora), stadium (gymnasium), and theater. Isthmia. Megalopolis. New cities laid out on grid pattern; even some older cities (Potideia)renewed on this model. Much of archaic and classical Greece lost. All this construction suggests some increase in public and private wealth. The crafts.
   2. Importance of agora in Mediterranean society, the paseo. Note the function of stoa and agora: religion, law, commerce, government and history/ patriotism (ACH sec 285, p. 532).
5. Private wealth (ACH sec 286, 535)
   1. Evidence is primarily epigraphical and archaeological. It is, however, difficult to make comparisons as so much of what went before was destroyed. Excavations especially at Athens and at Olynthus.
   2. Even so, Xenophon suggests a general increase in private wealth and households with 50 slaves are not unknown. On slavery: until 19th century, slavery was a normal manifestation of wealth increasing avoidance of Greeks as slaves, but the use of barbarians suggests a racial basis; most slaves seen as investment and were artisans, generally freed.
6. The problem of "peace and prosperity" vs. "war" and "stasis" ACH293
   1. "Prosperity did not bring peace, it simply enabled states to recover with amazing speed and embark on another war." NGL Hammond, 525.
   2. Equally, the willingness to profit from the internal troubles of others and to call in outsiders dominated inter-state relations.