Thucydides' plague account is demonstrative of many of the instruments used by Pre-Socratic thinking. For example the following passage illustrates both the tools of Accurate Observation and Classification: "I leave to other writers, whether lay or professional; for myself, I shall simply set down its nature, and explain the symptoms by which perhaps it may be recognized by the student, if it should ever break out again" Through the creation of a factual account, not theorizing the cause, but rather presenting the symptoms. Also, he looks to classify the symptoms as to differentiate this disease from others.
In the passage "Supplications in the temples, divinations, and so forth were found equally futile (non-theological/natural whole), till the overwhelming nature of the disaster at last put a stop to them altogether... " Thucydides uses the law of contradiction to demonstrate evidence that disproves a theory. For example, this contradiction describes that the perceived tools for fighting disease and natural disasters, that of suppliance to the gods, did not in fact alleviate their suffering.
The instrument of public debate is also used when he states "I leave to other writers, whether lay or professional.." implying that he intends for this writing to be discussed publicly as to confirm its validity.
Classicification is found in the distinction between the supplications in the temples versus the efforts of the physicians in that one refers to religious appeal and the other physical: "Neither were the physicians at first of any service, ignorant as they were of the proper way to treat it... Supplications in the temples, divinations, and so forth were found equally futile". Accurate observation is seen in the emphasis that is put on recognizing the symptoms and and nature of the disease: “simply set down its nature, and explain the symptoms by which perhaps it may be recognized by the student”. We can observe verification in Thucidides claiming, “This I can the better do, as I had the disease myself, and observed (autopsy) its operation in the case of others,” because it is an observation that is confirmed by his own experience. There is also an importance seen in public debate when he states the fact that he is making these observations for the good of discussion of other people, “I leave to other writers, whether lay or professional; for myself…”. We also can see contradiction in what is considered good, because the mores of people have been altered according to the situation, “Men now coolly ventured on what they had formerly done in a corner ....Perseverance in what men called honor was popular with none, it was so uncertain whether they would be sparedto attain the object;” Analogy is found in the like worthlessness in appeal to laws as a result of the situation, “As for the first, they judged it to be just the same whether they worshipped them or not, as they saw all alike perishing; and for the last, no one expected to live to be brought to trial for his offences."
Classification- He was able to classify the plague as not having to do with the will of the gods, due to the fact that, "Supplications in the temples, divinations, and so forth were found equally futile".
Accurate observation- He accurately observed the symptoms and progressions of the disease and wrote at length about them, "people in good health were all of a sudden attacked by violent heats in the head, and redness and inflammation in the eyes, the inward parts, such as the throat or tongue, becoming bloody and emitting an unnatural and fetid breath. These symptoms were followed by sneezing and hoarseness, after which the pain soon reached the chest, and produced a hard cough. When it fixed in the stomach, it upset it; and discharges of bile of every kind named by physicians ensued, accompanied by very great distress. In most cases also an ineffectual retching followed, producing violent spasms."
Public Debate: He simply wrote down the symptoms, but understood that others would take the information that he was providing and debate it, probably in public, "All speculation as to its origin and its causes...I leave to other writers, whether lay or professional"
Analogy: we did not find any analogies about what the disease was like. He just stated what was going on, rather than comparing it to anything that had happened before.
Law of Contradiction: we did not see any, because he was merely explaining the symptoms that the people exhibited, instead of talking about the people that were able to get better, or the ones who weren't affected in the same ways.
Verification- He decides to "simply set down its nature, and explain the symptoms by which perhaps it may be recognized by the student, if it should ever break out again", this is due to the fact that if the plague attacked Athens, then it could occur in other places, and allow for other people to know what they were dealing with and maybe find some kind of cure.
Thucydides' writings about the plague in Athens are scientific due to his descriptions of the symptoms and the social behavior that went along with it. "Supplications in the temples, divinations, and so forth were found equally futile" As he describes the prayers to the Gods as being a failure, he is demonstrating the scientific process they used to understand and identify problems in their society. Thus the plague was not a cause of the God's wrath. Thucydides then began to understand the illness by way of observation. Examples of this are seen through the autopsy and his descriptions of some of the symptoms such as, "But if they passed this stage, and the disease descended further into the bowels, inducing a violent ulceration there accompanied by severe diarrhea, this brought on a weakness which was generally fatal". Thucydides sums up by speaking about the social beliefs about the plague that the Gods would save them, and others believing that the Gods had abandoned them. The belief that the Gods can save them can be seen when he says, "The sacred places also in which they had quartered themselves were full of corpses of persons that had died there, just as they were; for as the disaster passed all bounds". Their deaths in the sacred places suggest the plague was not of the Gods doing rather a natural event. Thus we can see that this was a scientific study about the details of the plague through his descriptions of the symptoms and his descriptions of the society as well.
Thucydides was abl eto observe the plague that ravaged the village with a fair amount of acuracy. He classifies it into an illness with distinct characteristics he hopes will be useful for treatment in the future. As Thucydides relates, "Simply set down its nature, and explain the symptomss by which perhaps it may be recognized by the student, if it should ever come again." Clearly Thucydides knows the impotance of classification and documentation to help future doctors.
Thucydides gives a distinct description of the illness as he comments on many of the ailments that are consistent with the disease, for instance "Violent heats attacks of the head" indicae a fever, and "redswollen eyes" as well as a "bllody throat and tongue" are further indicators to the classification and identification of the plague.
Furthermore, Thucydides clarifies the behavior of the sick as they try to remedy the illness or problem themselves. Some even taking drastic measures to end the torment. "Neglected sick plunged into the public fountains to quench their thirst," Even though it is going to contaminate the water.
However, not everyone who contracts the disease is overrun and killed. Thucydides himself has been through the illness and come out still alive, but many people have died. The law of contradiction shows that the disease is not always fatal, because Thucydides is an exception to the rule, and therefore the disease cannot always have a fatal effect.
For people who were sick and still ran around likely infecting others did care so much because there was no one to stop them. "Fear of gods or law of men there was none to restrain them." As can be said it is clear that people were dying everywhere even in public places from the illness whcih serves as verification of the plagues presence and lethalness
Classification: Thucydides organizes symptoms in categories relating to different parts of the body, starting with the head, then the throat and tongue, then the chest, then stomach, and finally, the bowels. For example, he writes about "violent heats in the head," "redness and inflammation in the eyes," "the throat or tongue becoming bloody," etc.
Observation: He observed these symptoms first hand as someone who suffered from the plague and also observed the symptoms and their effects on others within the city (i.e. people jumping into the fountains to quench their unending thirst). He writes, "I...observed its operation in the case of others."
Debate: Neither gods nor physicians knew what to do, future debate is encouraged in those who may also experience the plague if it resurges. He also asserts that he is the best person to record the events due to his firsthand experience. (perhaps others survived the same ordeal and could also recount what happened). He writes, "physicians...ignorant as they were of the proper way to treat it," and that "supplications... were found equally futile."
Verification: Thucydides suffered from the plague and was an eyewitness to the events he describes. He writes, "This I can the better do, as I had the disease myself"
Classification- recognizes that patterns exist- catogorizes symptoms that affect different body parts- so that this knowledge can be used to prevent future outbreaks- describes both outwardly observable symtoms and sensations
observation- gives details about symptoms, gives commonalities about symptoms, generalizes between symptoms based on many observations (symtoms are not unique)
public debate- says that he will leave discussion of origins and causes to other writers- assuming that others will read his work, write on subjects that he did not cover, and their works will be available to him (he will know what they are writing about)
analogy- none found
law of contradiction- many people died even though they prayed, proving that prayer was futile because it didn't work in some cases (contradicting the law that prayer would always work) (proof that laws must be universal to be believed)
verification- proves that the symptoms are what he claims by telling us he had the disease himself and has first-hand knowledge of what he is writing
Verification - The concept of verification is the ability to confirm what is being scientifically observed: "This [observing the plauge] I can the better do, as i had the disease myself, and observed its operation in the case of others..."
Classification - Ordering or categorizing various aspects/features of what is being analyzed: "simply set down its [the plague] nature, and explain the symptoms by which perhaps it may be recgonized by the student"
Accurate Observation - Observing events occuring in nature/the natural world, outside from theological constraints: "Supplications in the temples, divinations, and so forth were found equally futile"
Public Debate - Critiquing of competetors or contemporaries: "Neither were the physicans first of any service, ignorant as they were of the proper way to treat it"
Analogy - Comparing something scientifically based to a somewhat fantastical more generalized notion: "Fear of gods or law of man there was none to restrain them [plague victims]"
Law of Contradiction - Contradictory forces working in the world. Inherent in scientific thought is the notion of contradictory forces. Man is the measure: "for as the disaster passed all bounds, men, not knowing what was to become of them, became utterly careless of everything, whether sacred or profane"
Classifications: "I shall simply set down its nature, and explain the symptoms by which perhaps it may be recognized by the student, if it should ever break out again" -- Thucydides states here that through observation through sypmtoms one person can recognize what the plague actually is.
Accurate Observations: "people in good health were all of a sudden attacked by violent heats in the head, and redness and inflammation in the eyes, the inward parts, such as the throat or tongue, becoming bloody and emitting an unnatural and fetid breath. These symptoms were followed by sneezing and hoarseness, after which the pain soon reached the chest, and produced a hard cough." --These are the symptoms observed by those who were witnessing the plague occuring
Public Debate: "it was settled that present enjoyment, and all that contributed to it, was both honorable and useful. Fear of gods or law of man there was none to restrain them.As for the first, they judged it to be just the same whether they worshipped them or not, as they saw all alike perishing; and for the last, no one expected to live to be brought to trial for his offences." -- Thucydides talks about all of the men speaking, about all of the men dieing by the plague. Through public discussions, the found that people were all talking about the same thing, but not completely agreeing.
Analogy:
Contradiction: "explain the symptoms by which perhaps it may be recognized by the student, if it should ever break out again (patterns/laws are assumed and are knowable).men, not knowing what was to become of them"--This is a contradiction because at the beginning he says that the symptoms will be recognized by man when the plague would break out, then at the end of his statement, he says that man would have no idea what to do.
Verification: "I had the disease myself, and observed (autopsy) its operation in the case of others" He verifies that he had the disease himself and was better able to take an eye witness account and verify the symptoms.
"Supplications in the temples, divinations, and so forth were found equally futile." Here, Thucydides says the plague has natural causes, not divine.
"I shall simply set down its nature, and explain the symptoms by which perhaps it may be recognized by the student, if it should ever break out again" Thuc. sets out to classify the symptoms of the plague, hoping that future doctors will be able to apply his observations and prevent spread of plague.
"This I can the better do, as I had the disease myself, and observed its operation in the case of others...people in good health were all of a sudden attacked by violent heats in the head, and redness and inflammation in the eyes, the inward parts, such as the throat or tongue, becoming bloody and emitting an unnatural and fetid breath" Verification. Thuc. experienced the disease firsthand and is relaying exactly what a victim would have gone through.
"What they would have liked best would have been to throw themselves into cold water; as indeed was done by some of the neglected sick, who plunged into the public fountains in their agonies of unquenchable thirst; though it made no difference whether they drank little or much" Observation. Thuc. witnesses the attempts of the general public to alleviate the symptons of the disease, but the water has no effect
An aggravation of the existing calamity was the influx from the country into the city, and this was especially felt by the new arrivals. As there were no houses to receive them, they had to be lodged at the hot season of the year in stifling cabins, where the mortality raged without restraint.
Observation. Thuc. hypothesizes about possible reasons for the spread of the disease, hopefully providing future generations with methods of preventing massive outbreak.
men, not knowing what was to become of them, became utterly careless of everything, whether sacred or profane. Fear of gods or law of man there was none to restrain them. As for the first, they judged it to be just the same whether they worshipped them or not, as they saw all alike perishing; and for the last, no one expected to live to be brought to trial for his offences. Observation. Thuc. describes the affects the plague had on society as a whole. The city descended into anarchy because the disease was so widespread. Telling future generations that if they don't follow his advice to stop the spread of disease, not only will people die but society will collapse.
Thucydides' observations show evidence of dedication to some of the early scientific principles of the Greeks. He does not have a theory to explain this plague a Athens, but approaches what he experienced in witnessing this event (in his bowels) from a scientific background, perhaps hoping that others would be able to make use of his observations to come up with a technique better adapted to fighting disease than the "supplications in the temples" that he observes had no benefits for the sick.
*"Supplications in the temples, divinations, and so forth were found equally futile"--shows classification of different techniques of trying to cure disease. It also shows evaluation of an approach to a problem, subjecting these practices to investigation of their utility in stopping disease. This shows he is a skeptic toward the traditional methods of curing disease, that he would prefer a more "scientific" system, because the traditional system does not produce results.
*I shall simply set down its nature, and explain the symptoms by which perhaps it may be recognized by the student, if it should ever break out again--Here, Thucydides' is commenting on his careful observation of a problem and making these observations available to other thinkers. This shows he is seeking information from others, enabling public debate, and looking for verification of his observed patterns from future observers of a similar phenomenon. He explicitly mentions his own observation and his first-hand experience: I had the disease myself, and observed its operation in the case of others
*He begins a long section where he makes very detailed observations, attempting to establish a pattern of evidence across many cases of illness, classifying symptoms by the order they occurred in: people in good health were all of a sudden attacked by violent heats in the head, and redness and inflammation in the eyes, the inward parts, such as the throat or tongue, becoming bloody and emitting an unnatural and fetid breath. These symptoms were followed by sneezing and hoarseness, after which the pain soon reached the chest, and produced a hard cough. When it fixed in the stomach, it upset it; and discharges of bile of every kind named by physicians ensued, accompanied by very great distress. In most cases also an ineffectual retching followed, producing violent spasms. ..internally it burned so that the patient could not bear to have on him clothing... What they would have liked best would have been to throw themselves into cold water; as indeed was done by some of the neglected sick, who plunged into the public fountains in their agonies of unquenchable thirst; though it made no difference whether they drank little or much...But if they passed this stage, and the disease descended further into the bowels, inducing a violent ulceration there accompanied by severe diarrhea, this brought on a weakness which was generally fatal. ..
The length of his observations shows dedication to accurate reporting.
He does not critique theories offered by other scientific thinkers, but does critique the lack of scientific theory among both those offering supplication at the temples and those who engage in antinomian (lawless) behavior when they feel that there is no escape from illness. (Their viewpoint is not as scientific as Thucidides'... They observe that both worshipers and non-worshippers are equally affected and unable to escape death. They changed their actions based on observation of the actions of others and the lack of utility of any previous solutions: men, not knowing what was to become of them, became utterly careless of everything, whether sacred or profane. ... Men now coolly ventured on what they had formerly done in a corner .... Perseverance in what men called honor was popular with none, it was so uncertain whether they would be spared to attain the object; but it was settled that present enjoyment, and all that contributed to it, was both honorable and useful. Fear of gods or law of man there was none to restrain them. As for the first, they judged it to be just the same whether they worshipped them or not, as they saw all alike perishing; and for the last, no one expected to live to be brought to trial for his offences."This shows that the general public may have been also exhibiting features of a Greek scientific mindset. They, and Thucidides observed the lack of effective solutions contradicting the effectiveness of the attempted strategies some had exercised.
Disection of Thucydides passage.
Classification: "Neither were the physicians at first of any service, ignorant as they were of the proper way to treat it..." The doctors were labeled as ignorant, which a form of classification.
Accurate Observation: "...in the case of others...people in good health were all of a sudden attacked by violent heats in the head, and redness and inflammation in the eyes..." Thucydides was priviledged enough to witness this plague in his community.
Public Debate: "...men, not knowing what was to become of them..." suggesting that they discussed, and reasoned about the plague and what was to become of them.
Analogy: "Fear of gods or law of man there was none to restrain them"
Law of Contradiction: "...supplications in the temples, divinations, and so forth were found equally futile..." because they believed that sacrifices were supposed to appease the gods the plagues would end, but since the plagues didn't end their sacrifices didn't work, or the gods wouldn't be pleased.
Verification: "I shall simply set down its nature, and explain the symptoms by which it may be recognized...as I had the disease myself, and observed its operation..." Thucydides was a victim of the plague and therefore an eyewitness.
Thucydides' description of the plague is scientific in that it exhibits 1) personal observation and classficiation 2) an assumption of an underlying order, i.e. natural laws, and 3) a recognition of the value of experimentation.
Plainly, Th. took the trouble to observe the symptoms of the disease himself: "This I can the better do, as I had the disease myself, and observed (autopsy) its operation in the case of others". He then made an effort to classify these symptoms by grouping them into "stages", e.g. "But if they passed this stage, and the disease descended further into the bowels, inducing a violent ulceration there accompanied by severe diarrhea, this brought on a weakness which was generally fatal." Here we also observe Th. effort to identify the causality of the symptoms within these stages. Such an effort itself presupposes an acknowledgement that the development of the disease followed regular, verifiable, and repeatable patterns, i.e. that the disease had laws. Finally, there is some indication that Th.'s exploration of these laws involved a spirit of experiementation: "What they would have liked best would have been to throw themselves into cold water; as indeed was done by some of the neglected sick, who plunged into the public fountains in their agonies of unquenchable thirst; though it made no difference whether they drank little or much." Though this was not an experiement conducted formally by Th. himself, the author is clearly using specific events to test hypotheses concerning the efficacy of possible treatments.
The disease was resistant to the mytho-poetic conception of the gods' role in physical processes: "[T]hey judged it to be just the same whether they worshipped [the gods] or not, as they saw all alike perishing;."
CLASSIFICATION- Thucydides classified his observations as a "plague" as opposed to a passing disease. The first line of his work classifies is as such. "... the pestilence of such extent and mortality was nowhere remembered."
ACCURATE OBSERVATION- Thucydides describes the symptoms that he observes to a great extent. "These symptoms were followed by sneezing and hoarseness, after which the pain soon reached the chest, and produced a hard cough..."
DEBATE- Thucydides decides to only catagorize the symptoms, not the origins like his competitors do. He leaves the dabate for the plagues origins to other writers. "All speculation to its origins and causes... I leave to the other writers, whether lay or professional; for myself, I shall simply set down its nature..." He sets the groundwork for public debate as to its origins, as he merely gives the observations of the events.
ANALOGY- the entire work was an analogy of man losing his fear of the gods and his morals. The disease was analogous of the loss of morals and almost considered an excuse for their behaviors. "Men cooly ventured on what they had formerly done in a corner..."
CONTRADICTION- Perseverance was once considered honorable but instead the people were pursuing instant gratification and enjoyment. The ideals of the plagued society were flip-flopped. Temples were used as storage for the dead, perserverance was no longer considered an honorable virtue and supplication to the gods was considered futile.
"Perseverance and what men called honor was popular with none.."
AUTOPSY/VERIFICATION- "i have the disease itself and have observed its operation in the case of others." Thucydides was an eyewitness as well as a victim of the plague.