1 Meta-analysis is a three-step process that includes: 1) locating all previous studies; 2) using the following formula to obtain the difference value, d; and 3) averaging all the values of d (Hyde, "Gender differences in personality and behavior," 84-5).

2 Hyde, 1984, used the technique of meta-analysis and reviewed 143 studies to find how large gender differences in aggression really were. Eaton and Enns, 1986, used meta-analysis to uncover gender differences in children's activity level; in Hyde, 86, 92.

3 Lightdale and Prentice, 1994, used technique of deindividuation to produce a situation that removed the influence of gender roles; in Hyde, 88.

4 Feingold, 1995, in Hyde, 93.

5 Deaux, 19, in Hyde, 79.

6 Hyde, 104.

7 Sandra Bem, 1974, used the Bem Sex Role Inventory, which consists of 60 adjectives or descriptive phrases, 20 are stereotypically feminine, 20 stereotypically masculine, and 20 are neutral; in Hyde, 99.

8 Bem applied the "Pressure-to-conform" study to measure degree of independence by comparing it to amount of influence by others; and "Good-listener" study to measure degree of nurturance; in Hyde, 100-101.

9 Spence and Helmreich, 1978, in Hyde, 101.

10 Bem, 1981, in Hyde, 102.

11 Westen, Psychology: Mind, Brain, and Culture, 555.

12 Westen, 545.

13 Fagot, 225.