Grammar of the Klamath Language
Albert Samuel Gatschet
INTRODUCTION 201
PHONOLOGY 206
VOWELS 206
DIPHTHONGS 208
CONSONANTS 209
MUTE CONSONANTS 209
SEMIVOWELS 210
PHONETIC TABLE 211
PRONUNCIATION OF THE SOUNDS 212
GRAPHIC SIGNS 214
LARYNGEAL MODE OF UTTERANCE 215
FREQUENCY OF SOUNDS 217
GROUPING OF SOUNDS 217
CLUSTERS COMPOSED OF VOWEL SOUNDS 219
CLUSTERS COMPOSED OF CONSONANTS 219
FOREIGN TERMS AND THEIR PRONUNCIATION 220
FRENCH TERMS OBTAINED THROUGH CHINOOK JARGON 221
ENGLISH TERMS OBTAINED THROUGH CHINOOK JARGON 221
ENGLISH TERMS OBTAINED DIRECTLY FROM AMERICANS 222
ALTERNATING OF SOUNDS 222
Vowels alternating 224
Consonants alternating 225
PHONETIC FIGURES 227
A -- Addition of phonetic elements other than
affixes to the word 228
B -- Dropping of phonetic elements from the word 229
C -- Contraction and dilatation of phonetic
elements 231
D -- Phonetic changes through contiguity 233
ACCENTUATION 236
I -- LOCATION OF THE ACCENT 236
II -- PROCLISIS AND ENCLISIS 241
QUANTITY 243
HOMONYMY 244
MORPHOLOGY 246
I -- THE RADICAL SYLLABLE 247
1. PHONETIC STRUCTURE OF THE ROOT 248
2. ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF ROOTS 250
3. PHONETIC ALTERATION OF THE ROOT 253
4. REDUPLICATION 258
II -- RADICAL SYLLABLE CONNECTED WITH AFFIXES 279
LIST OF PREFIXES 282
LIST OF SUFFIXES 304
RECAPITULATION OF THE SUFFIXES 395
A. Inflectional suffixes 395
Verbal suffixes
Nominal suffixes
B. Derivational suffixes
Verbal suffixes
GRAMMATIC CLASSIFICATION
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
1. Suffixes describing motion 396
2. Suffixes descriptive of staying
or resting 397
3. Suffixes describing the mutual
position of two objects to each
other in space, when in motion
or at rest 397
4. Suffixes describing acts performed
by animate beings or by parts of
their bodies 397
III -- INFLECTION 397
THE VERB 400
INFLECTION OF THE VERB 401
TENSE INFLECTION 402
MODAL INFLECTION 404
NOMINAL FORMS OF THE VERB 407
a. Participles 407
b. Verbals 409
PERSONAL PRONOUNS CONNECTED WITH THE VERB 417
VERBAL INFLECTION TO MARK SEVERALITY 419
THE VOICES OF THE VERB 420
INFLECTION FOR NUMBER 433
I. THE CATEGORY OF NUMBER IN THE TRANSITIVE
VERB 435
II. THE CATEGORY OF NUMBER IN THE INTRANSITIVE
VERB xxx
VOCALIC AND CONSONANTIC INFLECTION. PARADIGMS. 441
PARADIGMS OF VERBS. 442
PARADIGM OF THE A-INFLECTION 443
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE OF kt£ka 444
THE PASSIVE VOICE 451
THE INTRANSITIVE VOICE 452
THE IMPERSONAL VOICE 452
THE U-INFLECTION 453
THE I-INFLECTION 454
THE L-INFLECTION. PARADIGM. 455
THE N-INFLECTION. PARADIGM. 455
PARTICLES USED AS VERBS 457
IV. -- DERIVATION 458
THE SUBSTANTIVE 461
I. ANIMATE AND INANIMATE GENDER 462
II. ABSOLUTE AND DISTRIBUTIVE FORM 463
III. INFLECTION FOR CASE 466
CASE-SUFFIXES AND CASE-POSTPOSITIONS 467
FORMATION OF THE CASES 468
LIST OF NOMINAL CASES 470
1. The subjective case 471
2. Objective case in -ash 471
3. Possessive case in -am, -lam 474
4. Partitive case in -ti 476
5. Instrumental case in -tka 478
6. Locative case in -tat 479
7. Illative case in -xeeni 482
8. Transitional case in -na 484
9. Temporal case in -eemi 484
10. Inessive case in -i 485
11. Adessive case in -kshi 486
12. Emphatic adessive case in -ksaksi 489
13. Directive case in -tala 489
14. Juxtapositive case in -tana 490
COMPOSITE NOMINAL INFLECTION 490
PARADIGMS 491
CONSONANTAL INFLECTION OF SUBSTANTIVE 491
VOCALIC INFLECTION OF SUBSTANTIVES 495
IV. DERIVATION 496
DISTINCTION BETWEEN ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE NOUNS 498
THE ADJECTIVE
I. GENDER 505
II. ABSOLUTE AND DISTRIBUTIVE FORM 506
III. INFLECTION FOR CASE 507
CONJUGATIONAL PARADIGMS 511
IV. RADICAL STRUCTURE. DERIVATION 515
V. GRADATION 520
THE NUMERAL 523
I. THE NUMERAL SERIES 523
EXPLICIT FORMS OF THE NUMERALS UP TO TEN 524
THE NUMERAL SERIES FROM ELEVEN UPWARD 525
II. INFLECTION FOR CASE 528
THE ADVERBIAL NUMERAL 530
III. NUMERAL CLASSIFIERS 532
ORIGIN OF THE NUMERALS 535
THE PRONOUN
I. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN 536
II. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN 537
III. RELATIVE PRONOUN 540
IV. INDEFINITE PRONOUN 542
V. PERSONAL PRONOUN 545
INFLECTION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS 545
INFLECTION OF THE ABBREVIATED PERSONAL PRONOUNS 548
VI. POSSESSIVE PRONOUN 549
VII. REFLECTIVE PRONOUN 550
VIII. RECIPROCAL PRONOUN 552
IX. EMPHATIC PRONOUN 552
THE POSTPOSIITON 553
LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL POSTPOSITIONS 554
THE CONJUNCTION 556
LIST OF THE PRINICIPAL CONJUNCTIONS 558
THE ADVERB 560
LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL ADVERBS 562
Adverbs of quantity and degree 562
Adverbs of space 563
Temporal adverbs 565
Adverbs of quality or modality 566
THE INTERJECTION 568
A. INTERJECTIONAL WORDS AND PHRASES 568
B. INTERJECTIONS OF AN INORRGANIC NATURE 569
SYNTAX 571
THE VERB Axxx NOUN-VERB 572
THE SUBSTANTIVE VERB gΠ575
THE PREDICATIVE RELATION 577
THE SUBJECT OF THE VERB 578
PERSONAL INFLECTION 579
TENSE-FORMS OF THE VERB 579
THE FORMS OF THE PRESENT TENSE 580
THE PRETERIT TENSES 582
THE FUTURE TENSES 586
MODES OF THE VERB 588
THE DECLARATIVE MODE 588
THE CONDITIONAL MODE 598
THE IMPERATIVE MODE 590
THE PARTICIPIAL FORMS 591
THE NOMINAL FORMS CALLED VERBALS 595
1. The infinitive 596
2. The verbal indefinite 596
A. The Subjective Case 596
B. The Verbal Indefinite in -sham 598
C. The Verbal Indefinite in -sti 599
D. The Verbal Indefinite in -seemi, -s„m 600
E. The Verbal Indefinite in -si 600
F. The Verbal Indefinite in -stka
(desiderative) 600
3. The verbal conditional in -st 602
a. Verbal -st in a causative function 602
b. Verbal in -st in a circumstantial function 603
c. Verbal in -st in a temporal function 604
d. Verbal in -st after certain verbs 605
4. The verbal preterit in -uis 605
5. The verbal causative in -£ga 606
6. The verbal durative in -£ta 608
7. The verbal intentional in -tki 609
RECAPITULATION OF THE VERBALS 610
THE DISTRIBUTIVE FORM 611
1. Distributive reduplication applied to the
object or subject alone 613
2. Distributive reduplication applied only to
the verb 613
3. Distributive reduplication observed in the
noun and verb 614
METHODS OF EXPRESSING POSSESSION 614
METHODS OF EXPRESSING COMPULSION 616
POTENTIALITY, POSSIBILITY, VOLITION 617
THE OBJECTIVE RELATION 620
THE DIRECT OBJECT 621
THE INDIRECT OBJECT 623
THE ATTRIBUTIVE RELATION 628
A. THE VERB WITH ITS ATTRIBUTIVE QUALIFICATION 630
(a). Adverb standing separately 630
(b). Adverb prefixes 632
(c). Two verbs forming a compound verb 633
B. THE NOUN WITH ITS ATTRIBUTIVE QUALIFICATION 635
(a). Nominal compounds expressing possessive
relation 635
(b). Noun with its apposition 636
(c). Compounds formed of two or more substantives 637
(d). Compounds formed of adjectives and
substantives 638
(e). Other nominal compounds 639
POSITION OF WORDS IN THE SENTENCE 639
THE SENTENCE 642
THE STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE 642
I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 643
A. The declarative sentence 643
B. The negative sentence 644
C. The interrogative sentence 645
D. The imperative sentence 647
E. The exclamatory sentence 648
F. List of particles frequently used in the
simple sentence 649
II. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 656
A. THE CONDITIONAL CLAUSE 658
THE CONCESSIVE CLAUSE
B. THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE 661
C. THE RELATIVE CLAUSE 662
D. THE INDIRECT QUESTION 663
INCORPORATION 664
RHETORICAL FIGURES 669
APPENDICES 673
I. IDIOMS 673
II. CONVERSATIONAL FORM OF LANGUAGE 677
PHONOLOGY 677
MORPHOLOGY 678
SYNTAX 679
III. DIALECTIC DIFFERENCES 680
PHONOLOGIC DIFFERENCES 681
MORPHOLOGIC DIFFERENCES 683
LEXICAL DIFFERENCES 684
IV. SYNTACTIC EXAMPLES 688
Distributive reduplication 688
The future tense 688
The imperative mode 689
The present participle 690
The past participle 690
The verbals 690
The intransitive verb 691
The interrogative sentence 692
The cases of the substantive 693
The adjective 694
The adverb 694
Temporal locutions, mainly of an adverbial
nature 695
The conjunction 695
V. COMPLEX SYNONYMOUS TERMS 697
VI. ROOTS WITH THEIR DERIVATIVES 701