The Rise of “Confessions” Image: Portrait of Henry VIII (1540), by an artist in workshop of Hans Holbein the Younger  (1497-1543); Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica, Rome. Source: CGFA. I. Why Was Religion So Political? A. Churches Were Still “Proprietary” B. Only the State Possessed Enough Resources for Reform C. Church Wealth Attracted Predators D. The Competing Faiths were Turning into “Confessions” E. Religious Affiliation Became a Political Signal Map: Ecclesiastical Territories in the Empire Graph: English Crown Revenues, 1155-1688 Image: El Greco, The Adoration of the Name of Jesus (1578-79) II. A New Confession: Calvinism III. Wars of Religion in France (1562-1598) Maps: The Spread of Protestantism to 1650 Protestantism, 1530 Protestantism, 1560 Protestantism, 1600 Protestantism, 1650 Image: Jean Calvin (1509-1564) Map: Huguenot Communities in France, ca. 1598 Chart: Calvinist Publishing in Geneva and Emden Image: The Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre, 24 August 1572. What is a confession?

The Catholic Resurgence
Image: Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1680), The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (1645-52), marble, Santa Maria della Vittoria at Rome. Source: CGFA.

I. Introduction: The Lament of Egidio da Viterbo

II. Reforms at the “Grass Roots”
A. “Grass-Roots” Reform in the Mediterranean Region
B. New Religious Orders

III. The Council of Trent (1545-1563)
A. Reform of Doctrine
B. Reform of Religious Practice
C. Reform of Institutions

Image: Cardinal Francisco Ximenez de Cisneros (1436-1517)
Image: John Colet (1467-1519)
Image: The Twenty-Fifth Session of the Council of Trent (1562-1563)

Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)

An example of Baroque architecture
 

Identifications: The Council of Trent (1545-1563) Cardinal Francisco Ximénez de Cisneros (1436-1517) John Colet (1467-1519) Society of Jesus—“Jesuit” Order Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1680) Teresa of Avila (1515-1582)   Maps: Confessional divisions in Europe Top: This map shows the religious divisions of Europe in about 1560, when the fortunes of Roman Catholicism were at their lowest point. Elizabeth I had re-established a brand of Protestantism as the official religion there; most of northern Germany and all of Scandinavia were officially Lutheran; there were some 2,000 Huguenot communities within the boundaries of France;  Calvinism was ascendant in most of Switzerland; and in Austria, Hungary, and Poland, large segments of the nobility practiced some version of reformed Christianity. Bottom: This map shows the religious divisions of Europe after the conclusion of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), and shows advances of a resurgent Catholicism. The change was greatest in regions subject to the Habsburg dynasty, such as Flanders, where Calvinism had been effectively driven out; in the Habsburg "Crown Lands" of Austria and Bohemia, too, the numbers of Protestants diminished greatly.  Source: Bedford-St. Martins Map Central.