- PREVIOUS SAC
- 1855:1881 Russian Great Reforms, cultural flourish & resistance
- 1857:1870; London| Alexander Herzen as political refugee
- 1859: Several great European publications
- 1859:1863; "First Russian revolutionary situation"
- 1861:Ottoman Empire entered into steep decline
- 1861fe19: Emancipation of Russian serfs
- 1861ap13:USA Civil War broke out
- 1862se17:Germany entered into the era of Bismarck
- 1864no:USA launched campaign vs. Great Plains Native Americans
- 1868:1912; Japanese Meiji Restoration
- 1869au:Industrial labor exerted political pressure
- 1877ap12:1879jy13; Russo-Turkish War
- 1877:1881: Second Russian revolutionary situation
- 1881mr01:Russian Emperor Alexander II assassinated
-
1889:1905;
Industrialization and imperialism
- 1889jy14: Second International workingmen's association founded
- 1893:1934; Russian cultural "Silver Age"
- 1893my01:Frederick Jackson Turner announced end of USA frontier
- 1896my22:Russian/Chinese relations improved
- Next SAC
- Guide to SAC
<>1855fe18:1881mr01; Russian Emperor Alexander II reigned for 26 years
1) THE ERA OF GREAT REFORMS [LOOP] and
2) RUSSIAN REVOLUTIONARY SITUATIONS (The first and the second)
*--Alexander II, Emperor of Russia. The Politics of Autocracy: Letters of Alexander II to Prince A. I. Bariatinskii, 1857-1864
*--Aleksandr Nikitenko, The Diary of a Russian Censor (1975)
*--v1:1859-1880 British documents on foreign affairs--reports and papers from the Foreign Office confidential print. Part I, from the mid- nineteenth century to the First World War. Series A, Russia, 1859 -1914 (1983)
*--Nikolai K. Girs, The Education of a Russian Statesman: The Memoirs of Nich. Karl. Giers (1962)
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*--W. Bruce Lincoln, In the Vanguard of Reform: Russia's Enlightened Bureaucrats, 1825-1861
*----------. Nikolai Miliutin: An Enlightened Russian Bureaucrat
*--Daniel T. Orlovsky, The Limits of Reform: The Ministry of Internal Affairs in Imperial Russia, 1802-1881 (1981)
*--S. Frederick Starr, Decentralization and Self-Government in Russia, 1830-1870 (1972)
*--N. G. O. Pereira, Tsar-Liberator: Alexander II of Russia, 1818-1881 (1984)
*--E. M. von Almedingen, The Emperor Alexander II (1962)
*--James Malloy, P. A. Valuev and his career in Nineteenth century Russian state service
*--Werner Eugen Mosse, Alexander II and the Modernization of Russia. London:1958
*--Website of Walter Moss, "Alexander II and His Times"<>1855sp:Russian conservative Konstantin Aksakov (son of Sergei Aksakov and brother of Ivan Aksakov) wrote a memo to Emperor Alexander II, "On the Internal State of Russia" [TXT | Raeff3:231-51]
*--This loyal and strong defense of freedom of speech could not be published until 1881
*--Collection of writings = Tribune of the Slavophiles: Konstantin Aksakov<>1855:USA| Walt Whitman, Leaves of Grass [TXT]
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*--Wagar on Whitman [TXT]<>1855ja:Shimoda | After losing all but the ship Diana (1806:1812:GO) to needs of the Crimean War, and after great earthquake and tidal wave leveled Shimoda and shipwrecked Diana [Beasley, MHJ:61], in 1855fe07 Putiatin arranged Treaty of Amity (Nichiro Washin Joyaku). Modelled on Kanagawa treaty, recently signed by USA Commander Matthew Perry [KEJ,4:179. PHandG:782]. Lensen thinks Shimoda "provisions" are "more extensive" than Kanagawa [KEJ,6:270]. "Went beyond" by opening 3 ports [KEJ,6:341]. Opened Shimoda, Hakodate, and Nagasaki to Russia, but only for ship repairs and provisioning. BUT did allow posting of consuls at Hakodate or Shimoda Russia chose Hakodate and established reciprocal extra-territoriality. Kurils divided so that Japan held those islands south of Iturup (Etorofu); Russia, those north of Urup (Uruppu) [KEJ,6:270 Lensen. I think he means "S FROM" and "N FROM". NB!:Kurils divided N of Etorofu (KEJ,2:238 Stephan)]. Sakhalin a "common possession" (Lensen) or "jointly occupied" (Stephan) [Harrison, Japan's N.Frontier]. Lensen feels that "relations between Russian residents, mostly personnel of naval vessels wintering in Japan, and local inhabitants were on the whole amicable. As military men, Japanese officials could identify more readily with monarchist naval officers than with merchants or with missionaries [KEJ,6:341]. Lensen goes too far to put Russia in good light. Says 1st lessons in European shipbuilding from Putiatin's stranded crew, but cf.PH&G:766 re.Adams "Anjin"
<>1855my08:Heda, NW coast of Izu Peninsula | Putiatin and 40 men were moved to Heda, built European-style schooner in partnership with Japanese craftsmen, and departed for Russia from Japan (took 2 wks) [KEJ,6:270]
*That year novelist Ivan Aleksandrovich Goncharov began serial publication of his Fregat Pallada (1858:book publication) about his experience with Putiatin in Japan
*--Goncharov mocked and ridiculed Japanese in a most unfortunate manner. "It was difficult to look without laughter at these skirt-clad figures with their little topnots and their bare little knees". Lensen says that G's portrait of Japan as "ludicrous and effeminate" was very damaging
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*--KEJ,3:46
*--Lensen"Historicity<>1855je16:San Francisco Journal carried article by the German traveler Julius Frobel which stressed parallel rise of USA and Russia. Prognosis = three-way suzerainty over globe, USA, Europe and Russia
*--Frobel later wrote memoirs of his travels to the New World, Frobel, Julius, 1805-1893 Seven years' travel in Central America, northern Mexico, and the far West of the United States (London:1859) F1409.F92<>1855oc13:1857my21; French intellectuals Edmund and Jules Goncourt kept diary of everyday life in Paris in which they reflected on the inferiority of women [P20:14]
<>1856:1870; Italian unification under the leadership of Camillo di Cavour and Giuseppe Garibaldi, a complex 14-year process of gathering widely different jurisdictions under single governmental administration, not complete until Rome and Vatican City brought under the authority of the new Italian liberal monarchy [MAP]
*--"Italy", the nation-state, made its late appearance on the historical stage [DPH:187-91]<>1856:Sergei Aksakov published Chronicles of a Russian Family, a remarkable tale of gentry family life in the time of serfdom on the Orenburg, trans-Volga frontier or Bashkir steppes [excerpts= KRR:352-4]
*1914:Mikhail Nesterov landscape portrait of area around Aksakov homestead in Olga's Gallery
*--Sergei Aksakov's UO bibliography
*--For Sergei's famous sons, GO Konstantin and Ivan<>1856mr18 (mr30 NS): Treaty of Paris ended Crimean War [VSB,3:606-7 | DPH:197-9 | DIR2:209-20 | ORW:118] France, England, Turkey, Sardinia, Russia, Austria, and Prussia. Russia agreed to neutralization of Black Sea, open to all commercial fleets but closed to all military navies
*--Romania (till 1859 called Moldavia and Walachia) became semi-independent states under Ottoman Turkish suzerainty. Russia ceded to Romania the mouth of the Danube River and Bessarabia. All of lower Danube placed under international commission
*--Russian imperial advance in Ottoman Turkish Central Asia was hereby pushed back. Ottoman Turkey was now declared to be part of what was called the “European concert” and its integrity protected as such. Turkey became a part of Europe in the effort to keep its imperial domains from becoming a part of Russia
*--Russian imperialist ambitions were conspicuously damaged while the imperialist ambitions of “The West” were conspicuously advanced. The concept of "The West" (and the derivative expression "Westernization") very possibly originated in Russia [LOOP on anachronistic use of the term "Westernization"]. Now these loose concepts were increasingly used to describe powerful and rapidly modernizing (i.e., industrializing) northwestern European nation-states in their domineering or imperialist relationship to the rest of the world. The rest of the world was labeled over time with a series of progressively less slanderous adjectives = "savage", "primitive", "backward", "undeveloped", and (by the late 20th century) "developing"
*--It took Russia twenty years to bolster its military strength and prepare its reassertion into the Black Sea and, by the 1870s, in the Balkan region. The first moves in "The Great Game" after Crimea went the way the English wanted, but Russia waited for its turn
*1856de:Caucasus Mountains, northern slopes. Chechen people shifted from imam leadership to Russian administration as General Evdokimov introduced program of receiving into Russian territory immigrants from Shamil’s Chechen and Daghestan territories.<>1856mr30:Russian Emperor Alexander II advised Moscow aristocrats gathered in their provincial nobel assembly, "It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to await the time when it will begin to abolish itself from below" [VSB,3:589 | DPH:282] Nobel assemblies were institutions created in the time of Catherine II. These aristocratic "corporate" or soslovie-based institutions responded to Alexander's dramatic announcement in hope and fear. Russian landowning elites now entered into a brilliant, yet futile -- perhaps we could say final -- period of corporate or "class-conscious" political action
*--Newspaper reports on this Moscow Noble Assembly alerted reading public to the immediate possibility of significant reform
*1858su:Nizhnii-Novgorod and Moscow nobles heard addresses by Alexander II on same theme [VSB,3:591]
*--Internal Ministry official Aleksei Levshin and Senator Yakov Solov'ev described the background to reforms [VSB,3:589-91]
*--At the autocratic center, in Petersburg, the Main Committee and Editorial Commission laid the groundwork for abolition of serfdom [VSB,3:591-3]
*--Landowning nobles (rural gentry political activists) distrusted the reformist state and were thus not at all certain that this "great reform" would be all that great. What might this suggest about the status of the landowning aristocracy as a "ruling class" in Imperial Russia?
<>1856de01:USA WDC | Jefferson Davis, USA Secretary of War (1853-57) and future president of the rebellious Confederacy, addressed new challenge faced by a dispirited US military, scattered across the Great Plains in small, vulnerable forts. Davis understood the close parallel of frontier and imperialist expansion =The occupation of Algeria by the French presents a case having much parallelism to that of our western frontier, and affords an opportunity of profiting by their experience. Their practice, as far as understood by me, is to leave the desert region to the possession of the nomadic tribes; their outposts, having strong garrisons, are established near the limits of the cultivated region, and their services performed by large detachments making expeditions into the desert regions as required [Webb,Great Plains:194-5 & ff.]*1855mr03:Davis had gotten $30,000 from Congress to experiment with camels in TX
*1858:Davis also understood the military-industrial closeness of frontier expansion and the development of railroads. He was the first to propose construction of a railroad to the Pacific Ocean. He considered it a military necessity and thus a government project, that is, it required government subvention (monetary support) of private enterprise. Davis arranged for government survey of 4 possible routes
*--As USA was poised to launch a campaign into the Great Plains against the Native Americans who lived there, it was diverted by the disasters of the great Civil War
<>1857ja26:Russian Emperor Alexander II decree laid out plan for vigorous development of railroads [VSB,3:607]
<>1857my10:1858au02; India | Sepoy Rebellion ushered in brutal year of imperialist war which pitted England against Indian independence movement
*--The rebellion forced abolition of 250-year-old English East India Co. and caused imposition in India of direct administration by imperialist English crown.
*--Termination of the great English mercantilist overseas corporation, followed in a decade by the demise of the Russian-America Company [ID], indicated that a 300-year era of European economic life was over
*--And all this just as a new breed of trans-national corporation [ID] was about to be born<>1857oc11:Nagasaki | Putiatin back from China, where he was working to create a new generation of treaties more favorable to Russia than the old Nerchinsk Treaty. He found no word from Edo
*1857oc16:Nagasaki officials decided to move ahead in their dealings with Putiatin, using the Dutch proposal as prototype
*--Week later Putiatin signed similar treaty, w/promise that another port than Shimoda would be opened. USA diplomatic representative Townsend Harris wouldn't accept this plan and proposed to force a greater opening of Japan
*-- Putiatin soon had some imperialist success in China, and Russian imperialist ambitions in Asia mounted as the 19th century wound down
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*--Beasley,MHJ:65<>1857:1870; In London political exile, the pundit Alexander Herzen was beyond the grip of Russian censorship and free to publish and circulate back in Russia his influential journal of opinion and political news, Kolokol [The Bell] for 13 years, until his death [KMM:165-90 | RRC2,2:321-31 | Excerpts: Edie,1:328-78 | VSB,2:582-4]
*1851:Paris | Six years before the appearance of Kolokol, Herzen explained to Europeans that Russia had a long and progressive revolutionary tradition, "Du développment des idées revolutionnaires en Russie" [KMM:158-64]
*--He soon began to issue in serial form one of the great political/intellectual autobiographies of all times, My Past and Thoughts. These memoirs not only shed light on the early history of European socialism and the rise of the Russian intelligentsia [ID] but have become a part of the Russian literary canon
*1851se22:Herzen letter to Michelet [TXT | Excerpt = DIR2:233-54]. Herzen defended Russia from standard west European clichés repeated in Michelet's writing. Herzen insisted, "The time has come to show Europe that they cannot speak about Russia as of something mute, absent, and defenseless". This sort of critical and radical patriotism, especially the inclination to idealize Russian village political tradition, inspired the "populist" movement. [TXT on the meaning of "obshchina" in Russian political discourse in the 1860s]
*1852:Herzen founded "Free Russian Press". The press issued a stream of information and opinion back into Russia where censorship constrained free expression. These publications were suppressed by Russian officials, but they were read in secret and with enthusiasm both by political opponents of autocracy and by the autocrat himself
*1857fe03:Herzen letter to the novelist Turgenev compared Russia, America and Europe [VSB,3:634-5]
*1858:Herzen wrote of Russia and America: "Both -- from different direction -- reached across awesome expanses, building towns, settlements, and colonies, to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, the ‘Mediterranean of the future’"
*1859:"Russian Germans and German Russians" offered more critique of "West" [VSB,3:635-6]
*1867:Alexander Herzen portrait painted by Nikolai Gay and in Olga's Gallery
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*--Martin Malia, Alexander Herzen and the Birth of Russian Socialism
*--VRR, ch.1 & ch.3 on Herzen & Kolokol
*--Alexander Kucherov, "Alexander Herzen's Parallel between the United States and Russia", in Curtiss, ed., Essays...:34-47
*--English playwright Tom Stoppard on Herzen [TXT] Review of Stoppard’s dramatic trilogy, “The Coast of Utopia” [TXT]<>1858:London exile, as a result of unsuccessful radical republican political activism in Italy, provided Guiseppe Mazzini the opportunity to publish a theoretical and political journal, Pensiero ed Azione [Thought and Action]
<>1858:Leipzig | Russian priest and advocate of greater independence of the Russian Orthodox Church from state control and for general church reforms, I. S. Belliustin, published Description of the Clergy in Rural Russia: The Memoir of a Nineteenth-Century Parish Priest [Excerpt= KRR:336-9]
*--The Church, as institution, was largely put outside the range of tsarist reform planning. The Petrine subordination of church to state [ID] was given little official attention. However, the newly aroused public and energized seminary teachers and students, as well as certain activist clergy (such as Belliustin), subjected the Russian Orthodox Church to critical scrutiny<>1858my:Russian pundit Nikolai Dobroliubov (-1861), "The Organic Development of Man...." [Raeff3:263-87]; cf. Selected Philosophical Essays (MVA:1956) and 1859:review of Nikolai Goncharov's novel about aristocratic indolence, Oblomov [RRC2,2#28]
*--The monthly journal Sovremennik [Contemporary], in which Dobroliubov and Nikolai Chernyshevskii played leading roles, gained great popularity because of its broad-ranging "muckraking" journalism and advocacy of a "modern" secular, science-based world view. Because of censorship, philosophical, political-economic and social issues had to be disguised as literary criticism
*--Belinsky, Chernyshevsky and Dobroliubov: Selected Criticism
*--Chernyshevskii wrote on leading issues in the life of the struggling Russian agrarian order = "On the Ownership of Landed Property" (1857), "A Critique of the Philosophical Prejudices against Communal Possession" (1858)
*--He also developed a deep interest in contemporary European political-economic thought and its efforts to understand the geographically expanding industrial transformation of traditional agrarian civilization, the rise of the historically unprecedented social formation wage-labor. He wrote "Capital and Labor" (1860) [VSB,3:637], and he translated into Russian and extensively annotated John Stuart Mills' principles of political economy [ID].
*--In addition, Chernyshevskii wrote engagingly on philosophical issues, as in "The Anthropological Principle in Philosophy" [Edie,2:29-60 | VSB,3:638]
*--Chernyshevskii, Selected Philosophical Essays. He was an outstanding example of the new public intellectual in European life
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*--Wagar on world view of the Russian 1860s [TXT]
*--Vladimir Nabokov, The Gift [short novel lampooned Chernyshevskii and the epoch of Russian positivism]
*--William Woehrlin, Chernyshevsky: The Man and the Journalist
*--N. G. O. Pereira, The Thought and Teachings of N. G. Cernysevskij
*--VRR, ch.5 & ch.6<>1858my28:China and Russia signed Aigun treaty; 1858je13:Tientsin treaty [DIR2:257-70]
<>1858au19:Japan, Edo | Putiatin signed 1st Russian treaty of Friendship and Commerce w/Nagai Naomune (1816:1891) Inoue Kiyonao etc. Exchanged ministers and began trade
*--Putiatin later signed 1860no14:Peking treaty with China
*--Putiatin's slow starting, fifteen-year diplomatic mission to China and Japan ended in success
*--Russian-Japanese friendship seemed solid as Japan positioned itself for a great internal transformation, later to have immense impact on its foreign policy = Japanese Meiji Restoration<>1859:1862; Prussian Ambassador to St. Petersburg court was future architect of German unity, Otto von Bismarck
<>1859:1863; Russian revolutionary situation (the first, lasting 4 years) arose early in the Era of Great Reforms [KRR:430ff | FFS:101-96 (1860:1864 | various petitions etc)]
*--The 1860s have been called "The First Russian Revolutionary Situation" in which Alexander II and his administration could no longer allow themselves to govern as in the past. Serfdom over the long run and the legacy of Nicholas I more recently made the status quo unacceptable even to highest authorities. Significant changes had to be made. The people of Russia, the subjects of the tsar, agreed that significant change was necessary. The situation in which old regime authorities and their subjects agreed on the need for significant change was revolutionary first because authorities and subjects did not agree about what changes needed to be made. Second, state bureaucrats and various social groups were ready to mobilize themselves to promote their conflicting ideas about change. A reforming state machine and a new political opposition clashed =
*--Peasants wanted more land under better conditions
*--Gentry thought they were invited to help design the reform when the tsar asked noble assemblies to form gentry committees to deliberate on serfdom. Some gentry political activists decided to resist reform and others decided to push them to the limit
*--An emerging "civil society" sought political and social reforms well beyond anything the state could accept. A lively new print medium weighed in, from abroad and on the domestic scene
*--Poland rose up in rebellion against Russian rule
*--Political activism of either peasants, gentry, "intelligentsia" [ID], or national minorities were unacceptable to tsarist authorities. Thus tsarist government could not rule as in the past, and Russians agreed, but the people for a brief and intense period of crisis rejected changes proposed by reigning authorities
*--It was a revolutionary situation, but no revolution followed. The state prevailed over peasants with its army; it prevailed over the gentry and the fledgling civil society with harsh police measures and subtle policies of cooptation
*--A second revolutionary situation nonetheless arose 15 years later at the end of the reign of Alexander II
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*--VRR, ch.4-13 (90-315)
*--Jonathan Daly, Autocracy Under Siege: Security Police and Opposition in Russia, 1855-1905 (1998)-----------------------------------------------------------------------
<>1859:England | Map of London. A remarkable publication year:
*--John Stuart Mill, On Liberty [TXT] [CCC2,2:865-93]
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[W]*--Samuel Smiles, Self Help; With Illustrations of Conduct and Perseverance [TXT]. The second chapter described the personal traits that promoted remarkable success of capitalist/manufacturing leaders, the heroes appropriate to this new industrial age
*--Karl Marx,"Preface to Contribution to a Critique of Political Economy" [Zur Kritik der Politischen Ökonomie (Vorwort)] (the heart of Zur Kritik = indicated [TXT])
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Marx-Engels website*--Charles Darwin, Origin of Species [TXT] [CCC2,2:625-46 CCC3,2:813-33]
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*--Daniel P. Todes, Darwin without Malthus: The Struggle for Existence in Russian Evolutionary Thought (O:UP,1989)
*--Alexander S. Vucinich, Darwin in Russian Thought (1988)
*-----------. Science in Russian Culture (S:UP,1963-1970) [Q127.R9v8]-------------------------------------------------------------------------
<>1859:1869; Egypt, between Mediterranean Sea and Red Sea | French engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps oversaw the ten-year construction of the 100-mile-long Suez Canal. The canal required no locks and was navigable by even the largest ships (minimum of 196 feet wide and 42 feet deep). By 1875, the canal was under English control. Around half of all sea-borne trade between Europe and Asia passes through the canal. On the average, annual traffic level through the first century of the canal was 6000 ships
<>1859:Russian folklorist Aleksandr Afanas’ev published Russian Folk Legends [KRR:391-4]
<>1859fe19:Russia-France treaty [DIR2:225-6]
<>1859ap:Caucasus Mountains | Russia rallied in Chechnya and Daghestan after Crimean War. Captured Shamil, exiled him with a Russian title to estates near Kaluga in Russia [pix] [pix]
*--Caucasus Viceroy and commander of the Russian army there, Field Marshal Prince Aleksandr Bariatinskii outlined his vision of Russian imperialism in the Caucasus [VSB,3:607-10] The Great Game heated up
*--In 1870, Shamil was near death and was permitted to travel to Mecca where 1871mr:Shamil died, ending epic that began in 1830fe04<>1859my01:Saint Petersburg | Anton Rubinshtein founded the Russian Musical Society. Russian cultural figures mobilized to promote the interests of art and the professional artists who created it
*--In this same year several important, nation-wide voluntary societies were formed by a fledgling "civil society": The Literary Fund, the Political-Economic Committees of the Free Economic Society and the Russian Imperial Geography Society, and hundreds of individual Sunday Schools, soon coordinated by a Literacy Committee of the Free Economic Society. One objective was to bring literacy and other appropriate forms of primary education for the first time to the millions of "common folk"
*--A table illustrates growth of voluntary societies into this period = [pix]
*--A second table illustrates ups and downs in the turbulent 1860s = [pix]
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*--Yuri Olkhovsky, Vladimir Stasov and Russian National Culture<>1859fa:1862; Russian noble assemblies became mobilization centers of rural gentry politics, and they often clashed with official reformers. Provincial gentry committees complained, but the state did not waiver [VSB,3:593-8]
<>1859oc16:oc17; VA Harpers Ferry attacked by a guerilla army led by John Brown(1800:1859de). He expected this act to spark wide-spread slave rebellion. Or did he seek martyrdom in an ill-planned and poorly executed military assault? Reinforcements eventually defeated Brown’s forces
*1859de02:VA Charlestown | John Brown hanged, but not before he handed a prison guard the following prophetic note = “I John Brown am now quite certain that the crimes of this guilty land: will never be purged away; but with Blood. I had as I now think: vainly flattered myself that without verry much bloodshed; it might be done.” [2005my12:NYR:14-17]
*--THESE DRAMATIC EVENTS WERE THE CULMINATION OF A 5-YEAR INTENSIFICATION IN THE STRUGGLE AGAINST SLAVERY =
1942:John Steuart Curry: The Tragic Prelude
[Original on the Kansas State House wall, Topeka KS]*1854:Kansas-Nebraska Act assured that these new territories would not be slave states
*1855:KS Osawatomie | John Brown joined six of his sons and one son-in-law on their claim in the “free-state” KS. He soon was captain of a “para-military” [as we would now say] organization of local “free-soil” Kansans on the border of the slave-state Missouri
*1856my:USA | Missouri “border ruffians” crossed into KS again to harass free-staters. John Brown was determined to attack slavery and all who supported slavery with force. William Quantrill [ID] raided Lawrence KS before the vigilante force, made up of Brown and his sons, could bring relief. Brown’s fundamentalist Calvinism, heavily influenced by the images of Old-Testament prophet-warriors, inspired Brown to wage holy war against slavery. Those who followed him were soon involved in their own border raids. They rode into the claims along Pottawatomie Creek, seizing and killing four pro-slavery settlers (who had no direct role in border raids)
*--Brown subsequently also became involved in the planning of an African-American Republic, but grew tired of political debate = “Talk! talk! talk! That will never free the slaves. What is needed is action -- action.”
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*--David S. Reynolds, John Brown, Abolitionist: The Man Who Killed Slavery, Sparked the Civil War, and Seeded Civil Rights
*--Merrill D. Peterson, John Brown: The Legend Revisited
*--Peggy A. Russo and Paul Finkelman, Terrible Swift Sword: The Legacy of John Brown<>1860:Japan | After brief eclipse, Kawaji became Interior Minister (commissioner gaikoku bugyo). In 1867, he committed suicide after Edo Castle, seat of Tokugawa regime, fell to Meiji Restoration forces [noPHandG]
<>1860:Siberia | Vladivostok founded
*1860:Asia (Map of Eurasia showing its Political Divisions and also the various Routes of Travel between London and India, China and Japan), S. A. Mitchell, New General Atlas, 1860. The decorative map includes the Russian Empire, south to India and east to the Philippine and Japanese Islands<>1860no14:Russia and China signed Peking [Beijing] treaty [DIR2:257-70]
<>1860:Russian Slavophile Aleksei Khomiakov died, leaving rich and influential philosophical/publicistic legacy
*--"On Recent Developments in Philosophy" [Edie,1:221-269]
*--"On Humboldt" [Raeff3:209-29 | KMM:108-112]
*--Russia and the English Church... (LND:1895) [at UW; ORBIS SUMMIT]
*--"On the Western Confessions of Faith" [SUQ:31-70]
*--Excerpts [LDH:89-94]
*--Khomiakov was a leading example of how religious or spiritual vitality in Russia was so often found among secular intellectuals rather than among theologians or church officials
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Books about Aleksei Khomiakov<>1861:Japan, Hakodate | Russian Orthodox Church founded. The second priest there, Nikolai (1836:1912), was remembered as the founder of Orthodoxy in Japan
<>1861:Ottoman Turkey | Abdul Aziz became Sultan, deep decline. "Capitulations" virtually surrendered Turkish economy to European imperialist powers, particularly to England
*--The English sought internal financial influence and control over the Turks; the Russians drifted toward further war. The Great Game became very complex, involving national financial security
*--This was the eve of the "petroleum revolution" in European industrialization and the appearance of trans-national corporate enterprise to develop that source of energy<>1861ja28:Alexander II addressed State Council urging firm action to bring serf reform to conclusion [VSB,3:599]
*1861fe19:Russian social/institutional reform of most profound significance, EMANCIPATION of privately owned (gentry owned) serfs
*--English-language Proclamation [TXT] etc. [VSB,3:600-02 | DIR2:271-5 | DPH:282-5 | Page,Russia]
*--Russian Proclamation [TXT]. Obshchee polozhenie... [TXT] [These and others in Russian: RA2:38f, 82f, and 124f]
*--Brief history of serfdom, from its formal establishment to final dismantlement: GO 1649:Moscow and follow the LOOP on the keyword "serf"
*--As a story linked to USA slavery, GO 1680:1730 and follow LOOP on the keyword "slave"
*--A year and a half later, USA began at the national level to emancipate slaves
*--Russian peasant songs described village attitudes toward the institution serfdom [Reeder:105-08]
*--Gentry landlord and peasant both had reason to be discontented with the terms of this greatest of the great reforms =*--Nothing galled Russian villagers more than the immediate fact that freedom did not mean freedom at all for three years of "temporary obligation" to the old landlord master
- Serf reform expropriated half the lands in gentry hands, with compensation
- The compensation was insufficient to bring the Russian landed aristocracy, as a class, out of bankruptcy
- Noble assemblies fumed, but rural gentry politics proved powerless
- Expropriated gentry lands and village lands were granted to peasants through their village societies, rather than to peasant households
- Peasants were saddled with redemption payments which were too high (greater than the productive value of the often inferior lands distributed) and charged 6% interest on unpaid principle. Immediately, peasants fell into arrears
- [TXT on agricultural land over the half century after emancipation]
*1861mr22:Intrior Minister Sergei Lanskoi circular on creation of Peace Arbitrators to facilitate negotiations between gentry and their ex-serfs [VSB,3:602-3] These arbitrators were thought to represent a "civil society" under state sponsorship
*1861ap:Bezdna, a village south of Kazan | Peasant rebellion, caused by uncertainties about emancipation, was crushed by decisive military action [Daniel Field, ed. Rebels in the Name of the Tsar]. More from Rebels
*--More on peasant disturbances among recently "emancipated" serfs, and other forms of mass response to the greatest of the Great Reforms [VSB,3:603-5]
*--Emancipation did not solve the ages-old problem of serfdom, nor did USA emancipation solve the problems caused by slavery, but both great legislative moves brought an end to bound labor in both Russia and USA. [SWH:300-15 contains comparative primary documents, especially petitions from freed serfs and slaves]
*--One of the most important long-term historical consequences of Russian serf emancipation in 1861 was the transformation of an unfree rural soslovie [formally defined social class (ID)] into free village laborers. The imperial state continued to enforce and defend traditional divisions of the imperial Russian population into these five "medieval" sosloviia. And the state pressured peasants to continue to live within traditional village institutions and practices. But in truth, the state wholly remodeled those village institutions and practices along statist lines. The state's own reforms were tearing apart the declining social structure, but at the same time it made strenuous effort to preserve ancient social divisions. Emancipated village laborers in Russia are best not called "workers" or "proletariat" so long as they stayed "down on the farm" and worked the fields. It seems still best to call these post-emancipation villagers "peasants" [peasant LOOP]
*--But some post-emancipation peasants drifted away from village community ways. Those who drifted away contributed to the rise of a new social class, a "laboring class" or "wage-labor". These either hired out their labor in agricultural pursuits or became hirelings in newly appearing industrial enterprises. Russia and USA both were beginning to experience a general European (and soon universal) social/economic novelty, the proletariat. England had been wrestling with this novel challenge for nearly a century. As other nations entered the industrialization process, they too had to confront the challenge, and the challenge intensified in the second half of the 19th century = [labor LOOP]
*--Serf emancipation was the first of the "great reforms", but.....
*--Peasant emancipation in the 1860s was incomplete, and no serious or thorough measures were to follow the initial legislation until the 1906no09:Stolypin land reforms targeted the village foundations of Russian agriculture and, we might say, sought to convert Russian "peasants" into "farmers". [Try this farm LOOP]
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*--Kolchin to p47 (p49 = chronology of world-wide emancipation of unfree labor), ch.3:157-191, & Conclusion:359-75
*--Saul,1:312-21
*--Mironov,2:107-142 (social sources of the demise of social/economic bondage)
*--Blum:345-66 describes the serf-owning gentry on the eve of emancipation
*--Blum:575-620 describes emancipation, and concludes his general account of serfdom in Russia
*--Robinson, ch3 (peasants in the last decades of serfdom) & ch4 (gentry landlords on the eve of emancipation)
*--UO website map of Slave crops in the American South
*--Petr Zaionchkovskii, The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia (1978)
*--Terence Emmons, The Russian Landed Gentry and Peasant Emancipation (1968)
*--Terence Emmons, ed. Emancipation of the Russian Serfs. Series: European Problem Studies. NYC:1970
*--Daniel Field, The End of Serfdom: Nobility and Bureaucracy in Russia, 1855-1861 (1976)
*--David Christian, Living Water: Vodka and Russian Society on the Eve of Emancipation (1990)
*--Ben Eklof and Stephen Grant, eds. World of the Russian Peasant: Post-Emancipation Culture and Society (1990)
*--Wayne Vucinich, ed. The Peasant in Nineteenth Century Russia (1968)
*--Reginald Zelnik, Labor and Society in Tsarist Russia: The Factory Workers of St. Petersburg, 1855-1870 (1971)<>1861ap01(NS 13):1865; USA Civil War lasted four years
*--Newspaper accounts of two Virginia communities [TXT] on the eve of and during the Civil War. Newspaper accounts of the militant rebel against slavery, John Brown
*--Russia sided with the North, England with the South
*1865sp:North Pacific waters, Bering and Okhotsk seas, Siberian coastal waters were the cruising grounds of Confederate naval commander James Waddell aboard his cruiser Shenandoah. His mission = harass Union whalers. This was months after the Civil War formally terminated, but the commander had not been informed of that fact. More on whaling =
*1872:Arctic Sea | A large part of the USA whaling fleet caught in ice and destroyed. Civil War had already damaged whaling industry. The Union purchased many whaling vessels with the purpose of weighting them down with stone and sinking them in Confederate harbors
*1846:1875; Gray Whales nearly exterminated; 11,000 killed in these thirty years
*--The third and most glorious phase of USA whaling was at its end. Whale oil as a vital component of global trade was also at an end of its noteworthy 300-year history [Sanderson,Follow:248-9 argues that whaling had little influence on the course of history. When petroleum came to replace it, “the whole business just petered out without leaving any outstanding imprint on the world” (249) Surely he exaggerates]
*--A new age of petroleum was dawning, and with it a new age of energy politics. Value of whale oil fell, though the value of baleen remained high. Thus, the herds were slaughtered and left to rot with only baleen extracted. Several whale species were nearly extinguished as the 19th century wound down
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*--[W]
*--Saul,1:322-85<>1861jy04:Russian great reforms included a new vodka tax-farm system (Polozhenie o piteinom sbore and other financial reforms [RA2:144f and 191f])
<>1861se:Saint Petersburg | Circulation of revolutionary proclamation "To the Young Generation" [VSB,3:639] The swift arrest and exile of one author, Mikhail Mikhailov, could not be mentioned in the legal press. All efforts to do so were censored = [pix]
*--Soon student disturbances forced officials to close most universities. Herzen advised "Go to the people!" [VSB,3:636]
*--"civil society" was getting impatient, increasingly ready for bold action<>1861de05:1862fe; Russian gentry in their noble assemblies deliberated on the problem of serf emancipation [FFS:103-113]
<>1862ja25:1863my; Russian peasants submitted petitions [FFS:170-179]
<>1862fe:Russian novelist Ivan Turgenev published Fathers and Children [or Sons]. Here Turgenev offered his famous definition of "nihilist" in chapter five [TXT] [TXT] [TXT] [cf. DIR2:298-302]
*--Eugene Schuyler’s 1867 translation marked beginning of more than a decade of mutual Russian-USA cultural fascination [GO 1958:Brussels for another such epoch]
Other works by Turgenev of particular cultural/historical significance =
*--Sportsman's Sketches [TXT] [or Hunter's Notebook, etc.] (1852:several editions)
*--Rudin [TXT] (1855) a portrait of a "superfluous gentleman" or rootless intelligent, probably modeled largely on Mikhail Bakunin [ID]
*--Smoke (1867) hinted at east European revolutionary movements
*--Virgin Soil [TXT] (1876) based on populist revolutionary movement of the day [ID]
*--Perhaps not the most profound Russian author of the Golden Age, Turgenev nonetheless made an imprint on readers
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*--Julicher: chapter 9
*--Saul,2:167-213, 225-31
*--Victor Ripp, Turgenev's Russia, from Notes of a Hunter to Fathers and Sons (1980)<>1862sp:Mysterious fires burned large sections of Petersburg
<>1862my:Revolutionary proclamation "Young Russia" written by the headlong student radical of gentry background, Petr Zaichnevskii [VSB,3:639-41 | ??Rooney,RRe]
*--Another, very different proclamation of this time, by Nikolai Chernyshevskii [Russian TXT]
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*--VRR<>1862my20:USA Homestead Act [TXT] [TXT with commentary] opened vast public lands to emigrants willing to put down roots and make a life for themselves farming. Industrial mechanization of farming was making remarkable progress [pix]
*1862jy02:Morrill Act [TXT] eventually created 69 state colleges
*1862jy01:USA Pres. Lincoln signed Pacific Railway Act, approving an act of Congress which was anticipated by the Homestead Act and proposed "to aid in the construction of a railroad and telegraph line from the Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean."Section 3 of said act provided "that there be, and is hereby granted to the said company * * * * every alternate section of public land, designated by odd numbers, to the amount of five alternate sections per mile on each side of said railroad, on the line thereof, and within the limits of ten miles of each side of said road, not sold, reserved, or otherwise disposed of by the United State, and to which a pre-emption or homestead claim may not have attached, at the time the line of said road is definitely fixed." Mineral lands were exempted, and all lands not sold or disposed of by said company within three years after the completion of the entire road were to be subject to settlement and pre-emption, like other lands at a price not exceeding $1,25 per acre, to be paid to said company.
Section 4 provided that whenever said company completed forty consecutive miles of any portion of said railroad, the President of the United States should appoint three commissioners to examine the same, and report to him in relation thereto; and upon satisfactory information to him of the completion of forty miles, patents should be issued conveying the right and title to said lands to said company, on each side of the road, as far as the same was completed, to the amount aforementioned; and patents were in like manner to be issued on the completion of each forty miles
Section 5 provided that in addition to the issuance of patents to lands to the company upon the completion of each forty miles, the Secretary of the Treasury was also to issue to said company, bonds of the United States of $1,000 each, payable in thirty years after date, bearing six per cent per annum interest, to the amount of sixteen of said bonds per mile for such section of forty miles; and to secure the repayment to the United States of the amount of said bonds, together with all interest thereon which may have been paid by the United States, the issue of said bonds and delivery to the company were to constitute a first mortgage on the whole line of the railroad, together with the rolling stock, fixtures and property of every kind and description
The act specified the official charge to the newly formed Union Pacific Railroad and all of its subsidiaries
*1864:A second railroad act followed
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*--[W]
*--20th century revival of homestead concept [W]<>1862je06:China suffered further refinement of open ports and cities arrangements at the hands of England, Russia, France, and the Netherlands
*--Two decades later, a new imperialist power, Japan, upset the balance among those that fed on China, and those old imperialist powers in any event were themselves growing restless with the status quo in the far east
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Beasley,MHJ:80<>1862su:Russian activist members of fledgling "educated public" arrested by the hundreds (e.g., Chernyshevskii and Nikolai Serno-Solov'evich), journals suppressed (e.g., Sovremennik)
*--The Reform spirit was dampened and a fledgling civil society blighted. Consequently, a Russian revolutionary movement was spawned within a newly identified stratum of the Russian population, the "intelligentsia"
*--That summer witnessed first one then, a few days later, a second assassination attempt on two different tsarist Viceroys in Poland. The second of these targets was Grand Prince Konstantin Nikolaevich, the tsar's "liberal" brother. Terrorism entered the political mix, closely connected at first with the motive of revenge, "eye for an eye". Polish viceroys had approved execution of activist junior officers in Warsaw. [A definition of "terrorism"]
*--Terrorism began to appear in political pamphlets and actual terrorist acts increased in number over the next twenty years, culminating in this first epoch of political terror in Russia with the assassination of the tsar liberator himself<>1862se17:1890mr18(NS); German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck guided Prussia and then German Reich in the 27 years after he served in the Russian capital St.Petersburg [DPH:140-55 | DIR2:289-97]. Sometimes called "the Iron Chancellor", he created a nation-state out of political patchwork [MAP] of Protestant, German speaking peoples in north central Europe, under Prussian dominance and with capital in Berlin
*--A few days after he assumed his new post, he delivered a speech with the famous line, "The great questions of the day will not be settled by speeches and majority decisions, but by blood and iron". He transcended much of the political concepts of the post-Napoleon world -- radical, liberal, conservative, reactionary ideologies -- in favor of Realpolitik [practical politics, actual POLITICAL policies]
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*--Dietrich Geyer, Russian Imperialism: The interaction of Domestic and Foreign Policy, 1860-1914
*--[W]<>1862se22(NS):USA President Lincoln issued his "Emancipation Proclamation" [TXT] [ditto] which set a timetable for freeing slaves in specified locales
*--Russian emancipation of serfs occurred 18 months earlier
*--Problems of slavery were far from settled by this act, but the long history of bound labor in USA was formally at an end
*--For Russia, as for USA, the liberation of unfree labor marked the beginning of modern industrial labor movements<>1863:1864; USA National Banking Act
<>1863:1873; French author of pop-art fiction, Jules Verne (1828-1905) glorified the scientific and engineering potential of the industrial era
*1863:Cinq semaines en Ballon
*1864:Voyage au centre de la terre
*1870:Vingt mille lieues sous les mers
*1873:Le Tour du monde en quatre-vingts jours<>1863:French artists rebelled against the cultural establishment when they opened an exhibit, "Salon des refusés", comprising works refused for official display. This marked the beginning of the profoundly influential "impressionist" era in European graphic arts, lasting a quarter of a century [W]
*--Some call the epoch that followed the "post-impressionist" era<>1863ja23:Polish rebellion reached stage of open armed insurrection against Russian imperialism. Polish National Committee proclamation [VSB,3:611-]
*--Polish "freedom fighters" tried to enlist the Russian political opposition into their struggle in a effort to create an uprising in the middle Volga basin. The "Kazan Conspiracy" was designed to create a diversion, perhaps a "second front", forcing Russian authorities to commit resources to suppress both a Polish and a Russian uprising. The Conspiracy was a flop, in part because Russian activists largely refused to be a part of it. The central question was this = are Polish activists after the same things as the Russian activists?
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*--Leslie, R. F. Reform and Insurrection in Russian Poland, 1856-1865. London:1963
*--Joseph Wieczerzak, A Polish chapter in Civil War America; the effects of the January insurrection on American opinion and diplomacy
*--VRR, ch.12 about the Kazan Conspiracy<>1863ja:Russian statist journalist and newspaperman Mikhail Katkov wrote patriotic editorials against Revolution in Poland [DIR2:276-83]
*--Russian mass media began to come into its own
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*--Karel Durman, The Time of the Thunderer: Mikhail Katkov, Russian Nationalist Extremism, and the Failure of the Bismarckian System, 1871-1887. CUP:1988) [dk219.6k15d87]
*--Michael Katz,. Mikhail N. Katkov: A Political Biography, 1818-1887. The Hague:1966
*--Louise McReynolds, News Under Russia's Old Regime: The Development of a Mass-Circulation Press (1991) [PN5274.M38]<>1863ap13:Russian Interior Minister Petr Valuev submitted memo on the relationship of state and society, a statist version of "civil society" [Raeff2:122-131] Valuev was a master of political "co-optation", that is, the harnessing of independently mobilized social energy to officially authorized tasks
*--Valuev also led the official assault on the spontaneous public movement to create a nation-wide system of elementary education
*1880s:Ivan Kramskoi portrait of older Valuev in Olga's Gallery
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*--Alan Kimball web essay on Valuev and public mobilization in the 1860s<>1863je18:Russian university reform and other educational reforms [VSB,3:610-11]
*--Russian texts, Obshchii ustav... etc. [RA2:382f, 411f, and 417f]
*--The "great reforms" continued, but notice later official reactionary measures
\\
*--P. Alston, Education and the State in Tsarist Russia. Stanford:1969
*--Danierl R. Brower, Training the Nihilists: Education and Radicalism in Tsarist Russia. Ithaca NY:1975
*--Abbott Gleason, Young Russia: The Genesis of Russian Radicalism in the 1860s (1980)
*--Samuel D. Kassow, Students, Professors, and the State in Tsarist Russia (1989) [LA838.7.k37]
*--Alan Kimball, "Student Interests and Student Politics: Kazan University" [LF4269.K55 1988]
*--James C. McClelland, Autocrats and Academics: Education, Culture, and Society in Tsarist Russia (Chicago:1979) [LA831.8.M24]
*--Allen Sinel, The Classroom and the Chancellery: State Educational Reform in Russia under Count Dmitry Tolstoi. Cambridge MA:1973 [LA831.7.S5]<>1863fa:Russian pundit Chernyshevskii while imprisoned by tsarist authorities published a novel, What Is to Be Done? or What’s to be Done? [latest translation is best] It has been described as an awful novel but the greatest awful novel ever written because of its immense popularity and influence on Russian culture [cf. KMM:141-54]
*--One of the novel’s characters was modeled on the physiologist and psychologist Ivan Sechenov. See Sechenov's Autobiographical Notes and Selected Physiological and Psychological Works (MVA)<>1864:1866; USA | Second railroad act followed first. Western-Union effort to link USA and Europe via Alaska and Siberia failed when Atlantic cable [pix] eliminated need, but great Atlantic-to-Pacific project moved ahead
*1864fe09:USA government grant to the State of Kansas was accepted and directly transferred to the newly formed Achison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad Company AT&SF which was driving a line from Kansas to the Gulf of Mexico at Galveston, Texas
*--The end of the Civil War can be taken as the beginning of the era of industrial transformation of the USA economy. Railroads found their way directly into US folk culture, for example the popular folksong "Wabash Cannonball" [TXT]
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Saul,1:360-70<>1864:1876; London was the HQ of The International Workingmen's Association [later known as "The First International"]
*1871:General Rules [DPH:205-7]
*--"Socialism" beginning to take on organized existence in Europe<>1864wi:Russian novelist Fedor Dostoevskii criticized Chernyshevskii-style materialist philosophy in 1st half of Notes from the Underground [TXT] [cf. Edie,2:240-9]
<>1864ja01:Russian state made significant concessions to provincial and local public and their need for self administration = the "Zemstvo Reform" [VSB,3:613-4 | DPH:285-7]
*--Russian text Polozhenie o guberskikh i uezdnykh zemskikh uchrezhdeniiakh [RA2:212f]
*--This was arguably the second most important "great reform". For one thing, zemstvos became the institutional home of a significant liberal oppositional movement
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*--Terence Emmons and Wayne S. Vucinich, eds. The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government (Cambridge ENG:1982) [JS6058.Z46, click on title for status]
*--Abbott Gleason, Local Opposition to Autocracy, 1864-1905
*--Emerging Democracy in Late Imperial Russia<>1864fe19:Polish rebellion treated in part as reform issue. Russian state put through peasant reforms designed in a way to weaken noble elite of Poland [VSB,3:612-13]
*--The most important expression of national independence within the first revolutionary situation was for the time being silenced<>1864oc29:Russian Foreign Minister Aleksandr Gorchakov's memo on Central Asia compared Russian imperialism with general European imperialism, that of "all civilized states that come into contact with half-savage nomadic tribes without firm social organization". Like USA, France, Holland and England, Russia felt compelled to establish "a certain authority over its neighbors, whose wild and unruly customs render them very troublesome". Expansion into new territory created another even more remote frontier where yet other "wild and unruly" peoples begin to cause trouble. That forced yet further movement, and then further. The choice was to give up or "advance farther and farther into the heart of savage lands". Russia advanced "not so much from ambition as from dire necessity, where the greatest difficulty lies in being able to stop" [VSB,3:610 | BNE:168-70 | my emphasis] Gorchakov sought to keep Europeans from attacking Europeans as they all responded to the imperatives of the Great Game
*--Compare this argument with the English argument and with an early US argument and a later US argument
*1867 in the Indian city Deoband, near Dehli, local Muslims took action to bring an end to that condition described by Gorchakov as "tribes without firm social organization". They organized themselves against English rule. They centered their activities on the village madrasa, the fundamentalist Islamic school, which emphasized training the young, especially the poor, in fundamentals of the Koran and the sharia (Islamic law). Over the next century and a half, Deoband issued about 250,000 fatwa (instructions on proper Muslim behavior). By the late 20th century, the Taliban, with US help, had become a serious force among Islamic peoples of that region
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*--Robert D. Crews, For Prophet and Tsar: Islam and Empire in Russia and Central Asia
*--E. Allworth, ed. Central Asia
*----------. Nationality Question in Soviet Central Asia
*----------. Tatars of the Crimea: Their Struggle for Survival...
*--S. Becker, Russia's Protectorates in Central Asia: Bukhara and Khiva, 1865-1924 (Cambridge MA:1968)
*--Richard A. Pierce, Russian Central Asia, 1867-1917:A Study in Colonial Rule
*--Serge A. Zenkovsky, ed. Pan-Turkism and Islam in Russia. Cambridge MA:1960<>1864no:USA CO Ft.Lyon area | In good faith, CO Volunteers Colonel Edward Wynkoop convinced Native American Cheyenne tribe to place selves under protection of the US military [Hutton:56]
*--Shortly, Colorado Governor John Evans and the Colorado Volunteers, under the command of John Chivington, attacked the peaceful village and declared a war of extermination against the Cheyenne. The event came to be known as the Sand Creek Massacre and marks the symbolic beginning of several years of warfare on the Great Plains
*--The ambush unsettled the whole territory from the Platte.R south to Red.R
*--Military commander/administrator Philip Sheridan, a well-known Civil War commander now assigned to duties in the war against Native Americans on the Great Plains, later put stress on the importance of this period in his and his nation's life. He referred to it vaguely as the beginning of Indian harassment of settlers and disruption of stage and railroad routes. He made no mention of the Sand Creek massacre [ShePH.vsp,2:282. (03):this number in parentheses records the order in which Sheridan's memoirs accounted these events]
*1864:1870; KS the scene of "Indian troubles" as military shifted its attention from Civil War and occupation of the defeated South in the era of Reconstruction
*1883:Early Kansas historian William Cutler described the era [W]
*1864:1868; KS Ft.Larned | Significant construction of bridges, stone & lumber buildings. Military projects were designed for "protection" of the Santa Fe Trail
*1866:USA Great Plains divided into military administrative units, "divisions", "with a view to controlling the Indians". Division of Missouri was created and put under the command of General Sherman. "Former temporizing" had made Native Americans "confident" & "defiant" [(15) ShePH.vsp,2:297]
*1866:Major General William Hazen, a veteran of the Indian wars even before the Civil War, described his policy outlook: "allot to each tribe, arbitrarily, its territory or reservation, and make vigorous, unceasing war on all that do not obey and remain upon their grounds" [Hutton:43]
*1866su:KS | "military operations" against "hostile tribes" of Native Americans commenced<>1864no20:Russian legal reform [VSB,3:614-16]
*--Russian text Uchrezh. sudeb. ustanovlenii [RA2:278f]
*--This reform created independent judiciary, trial by jury, the right to legal representation, and a large promise of "rule by law" in civil cases. It extended to recently freed peasant the right to bring suit at court. It also caused large numbers of professionally oriented Russians to become lawyers
*--This was an important moment in the long history of Russian "rule of law" [LOOP on history of Russian "law codes"]
*--More than a dozen years later, the trial of Vera Zasulich confirmed the worse fears of those who opposed this "great reform"
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*--Mironov,2:223-365 puts late Imperial law in the broadest Russian historical and social context, reaching back to medieval times
*--Richard Wortman, The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness
*1981ap:JGO:161-84 | T. Taranovski, "The Aborted Counter-Reform: The Muravev Commission and the Judicial Statutes of 1864"
*--S. Kucherov, Courts, Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars (NYC:1953)<>1864de08(NS):Vatican issued Pope Pius IX's "Syllabus of Errors" [DPH:233-41], including "Errors about civil society, considered both in itself and in its relation to the Church" [237-9] Other Catholic Church/state documents [DPH:241-5]
<>1865:1869; Russian novelist at the dawn of world fame, Leo Tolstoy (1828:1910) produced his first great novel War and Peace [TXT] Just for fun, try this brief comic-book version of the massive novel = [TXT,part.1] [TXT,part.2]
*--Tolstoy was a central figure of the Russian "golden age" in its late novelistic phase, from the 1850s to the 1880s
*--He outlived his Golden Age, but he was even more widely influential in the Russian "Silver Age" a quarter of a century later
*--His most important writings in this "golden age" =
*--Childhood, Boyhood, Youth (1851:1857) while serving in the military in the Caucausus
*--Sebastopol or Tales of Sevastopol (1854), Crimean War battle reportage in the journal Sovremennik
*--Tolstoy on Education (Chicago:1967 [reprint]) [LB675.T6 T63] and very similar translation (as if a close copy) Tolstoy on Education: Tolstoy's Educational Writings, 1861-1862 (Rutherford NJ:1982) [LB675.T6]
*--Anna Karenina (1875:1877)
*--"Death of Ivan Ilyich" (1884)
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*--Wagar on the Golden Age of Russia culture [TXT]<>1865ja11:Moscow noble (gentry) assembly addressed Alexander II with request that he complete the zemstvo reforms "by calling together a general assembly of elected representatives from the Russian land". They presumed that only nobles would elect and be elected. "The nobility has always been the firm mainstay of the Russian throne. Not being officials of the government and not enjoying the rewards that such service brings, doing their duty without remuneration for the benefit of the fatherland and the public order, these men, by virtue of their very position within the state [as elected representatives in a new zemskii sobor], will have the mission of preserving those moral and political principles that are so valuable for the people and so necessary for their true well-being, and upon which rests the structure of the state." However "establishmentarian", the suggestion that a national representative political body ought to be created and that it was a natural fulfillment of Zemstvo institutions shocked officials [VSB,3:616]
<>1865ap06:Russian censorship granted writers, publishers and readers "some degree of relief" in a two-minded reform [VSB,3:616-17]
*--Russian text O darovanii nekotorykh oblegchenii... etc. [RA2:438f and 440f]
*--"Great reforms" continued<>1865je28:Russian State Council and Interior Ministry reformed laws on Jewish pale, allowing mechanics, distillers, brewers, master craftsmen and artisans in general to live anywhere in the Empire [VSB,3:617-18]
<>1866:Russian novelist Fedor Dostoevskii published Crime and Punishment [TXT]
<>1866ja03:Russian financial reform (Vrem. polozh o kontrol [RA2:204f])
*--The deep need for fiscal and military reform was addressed only late in the process, and then under the influence of an official reactionary mood that arose following an attempt on the life of the tsar =<>1866mr:Russian terrorist Dmitrii Karakozov tried to shoot Alexander II
*--This was the second blow to civic activism and reform. In "society", revolutionary activities now intensified and went underground. A large body of political activists were "burnt away" by tsarist suppression and fear of serious commitment to conspiracy and revolution, but a small body of largely youthful activists, with "nothing to lose", continued the struggle
*--Among government figures, reactionary officials felt vindicated in their opposition to progressive change. They could now assert that there was a link between reform and terrorism. The pace of the "great reforms" slackened
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*--VRR, ch.14<>1866su:USA Assistant Secretary of the Navy Gustavus Fox in Russia [VSB,3:618-20]
<>1866no24:Russian state peasant reform. State peasants represented about half the village population of the Empire. This reform preserved their advantages over ex-serfs recently emancipated from private gentry ownership [VSB,3:620-1]
<>1867:London | Karl Marx, Das Kapital, volume one
<>1867:Paris Universal Exhibition (world's fair)
*--French engineers Léon Droux and Léon Rueff described technological and industrial advancements [BNE:145-6]<>1867:1876; USA Federal Government imposed Reconstruction Act to administer defeated South for nearly ten years
<>1867mr30:Russia and USA signed treaty selling Alaska to USA [DIR2:284-7]
*--Russian ambitions through Siberia to the New World gave way to ambitions directed south and east from Siberia in the direction of Manchuria and Korea
*--A 120-year Alaska adventure was over for Russia, and the 70-year-old trans-national or trans-oceanic corporation, the "Russian-America Company" was also at its end
*--A grave with Russian inscription next to the Kodiak Russian Orthodox Cathedral [pix]
*--In these years Secretary of State Seward also sought to gain possession of the Virgin Islands, Canadian British Columbia, and Greenland
*--Canada also got many long looks from ambitious USA officials in the time of U.S. Grant’s presidency
*--For decades, Alaska had been filling with a spontaneous stream of immigrants from the "lower 48". This human influx helped convince the Russians that Alaska would someday soon be dominated by American pioneers and should be sold while the selling was good. Then, a half century after the sale, in a time of domestic economic crisis, followed soon by international crisis, the fate of Alaska Territory took another turn
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*--Saul,1:185-93, 267-311, 385-96
*--Howard Kushner, Conflict on the Northwest Coast: American-Russian Rivalry in the Pacific Northwest, 1790-1867 (see ch.6: "The Oregon Question and Russian-America")
*--Stuart Ramsey Tompkins, Alaska: Promyshlennik and Sourdough (1945)<>1867ap:Vienna | Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph declared the Empire divided into a "Dual Monarchy", the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Franz Joseph maneuvered his empire into position for its final half-century flare, an adventure that ended in the catastrophe of WW1
<>1867ap01:India became Crown Colony as rule of East India Company brought to an end
<>1867my:Moscow | Second Slav Congress a critical moment in the shift of Panslavism from cultural doctrine toward Russian imperialist ideology. National liberation of the "little Slavs" from Ottoman (and perhaps Austrian) imperialist dominion was a useful idea as Russia continued to play its role in the Great Game
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*--Hans Kohn, Pan-Slavism: Its History and Ideology
*--Donald Fanger, "On the Russianness of the Russian Nineteenth-Century Novel". In Stavrou, Art:40-56
*--Charles Katsainos, The Theory and Practice of Russian Panslavism in the Light of Russia’s Expansion in the Balkans until 1912<>1867jy20:USA WDC | In anticipation of the 67oc21:Great Council treaty gathering in KS Medicine Lodge, Congress created the Indian Peace Commission
*1867se05:MO St.Louis | General Philip Sheridan left for Ft.Leavenworth
*1867oc21:KS Medicine Lodge | Great Council led to the Medicine Lodge Treaty [W]
*1868ja07:WDC | "Report to the President by the Indian Peace Commission" [TXT]
*1868fe29:KS Ft.Leavenworth | Sheridan took up command of department #3 (of 4) of General William Tecumseh Sherman's Division of the Missouri. Sherman commanded 6000 soldiers in 27 forts. Sheridan thus was reassigned from military administration of Reconstruction in the defeated South to Indian Affairs
*--NB! military shifting around to preserve and protect its budgets from demobilization after the Civil War [EG:In 1868:5th cavalry sent to KS when no longer needed for Reconstruction duty in South (Hutton:50)]
*--Sheridan prepared 6-mo winter campaign
a) "asked for additional cavalry"
b) "applied for regiment of Kansas volunteers"
c) application granted
d) organization of regiment begun in KS Topeka
e) gathered supplies
f) hired guides
*--Sheridan moved his HQ to KS Ft.Hays, now Union Pacific Railroad terminus; good depot for supplies. "Protection of the railroad was Sheridan's primary concern" [Hutton:39] [MAP]
*1868jy:WDC | Congress finally appropriated $500,000, but turned it over not to civilian Indian Agency, but to Sheridan and the military. USA relations with the native nations shifting from civilian to military hands.
*1868jy:WY | The army forced Union Pacific Railroad President Thomas Durant to accept Chief Engineer Grenville Dodge's route for building the railroad further westward. Dodge an old comrade of the Civil War military. All were West Point graduates. US President Grant and General Sherman played a role here too [Hutton:40 lxt]
*1868au:se;KS & CO frontier settlers suffered 79 killed in Indian raids. Now Sheridan began to attack villages in order to scatter Native Americans. Only policy was that Indians "be soundly whipped, and the ringleaders in the present trouble hung, their ponies killed, and such destruction of their property as will make them very poor" [Hutton:38] Sheridan addressed a joint session of TX House and Senate: "These men, the buffalo hunters, have done in the last two years, and will do more in the next year, to settle the vexed Indian question, than the entire regular army has done in the last thirty years. They are destroying the Indians’ commissary; and it is a well-known fact that an army losing its base of supplies is placed at a great disadvantage. Send them powder and lead, if you will; but for the sake of lasting peace, let them kill, skin, and sell until the buffalo are exterminated. Then your prairies can be covered with speckled cattle, and the festive cowboy, who follows the hunter as a second forerunner of an advanced civilization." [Rister,No Man’s Land:29]
*--Here Sheridan foreshadowed the famous Turner Thesis. He put the matter in the proper context of expanding USA power. Sheridan helps us see that the Turner thesis frames both frontier and imperialist expansion
*1868au:se; MO St.Louis |General Sherman turned against the Medicine Lodge Treaty which had not in any event been ratified, nor had any of the promised gifts and assistance been given to the Native Americans. Military and civilian authorities were at loggerheads<>1867au21(NS):North German Confederation's new Reichstag had delegates August Bebel (1840-1913) and Wilhelm Liebknecht (1826-1900), the first socialists so elected
<>1868:1912; Japan entered into industrial modernization in the 44-year era called "Meiji Restoration"
*--Japanese businessmen Fukuzawa Yukichi and Shibuzawa Eiichi gave expression to a new entrepreneurial, industrializing and modernizing ethos [SWH:358-63]
*--Yamagata Arimoto gave expression to a Japanese variation on militant Chauvinism [ID] which was waxing in "The West" in these years [SWH:340-5]
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*--Black, Cyril E., et al. The Modernization of Japan and Russia: A Comparative Study<>1868:1869; Vologda Guberniia, in far NE Russia | Politically exiled philosopher and social theorist Petr Lavrov (1823-1900) wrote Historical Letters [cf. Edie,2:123-69 | VSB,3:650-1]. In his "pre-revolutionary" years (1850s-1860s), Lavrov inspired a whole generation of thinking and reading youth. He explored a choice his 19th century seemed to present mankind, between history and science, between "humanities", the record of human experience, and the more universalistic laboratory and math-based ways of knowing. Lavrov came down on the side of history. He sought to counter the hyper-scientism or positivism of Dmitrii Pisarev [ID] and inspire all youth to an activist life of the "critical-minded individual"
*--Lavrov sometimes described his philosophy as "anthropologism", in which he emphasized the subjective human (even very individual and experiential) foundations of all knowledge. Lavrov had his way of understanding and respecting the materialist view of the world and the dominant "positivist" trends of his century. For that he was sometimes accused of being "eclectic" ["cherry picking" among powerful intellectual trends]. He was an almost pedantic historian of thought. But he once wrote that the phrase "I WANT to know" (with emphasis on willful desire) was the matrix of advanced human consciousness. In his exploration of that insight, he had little by way of pre-planted orchards of ideas to pick among. In this way he predicted ways of thinking more common to the century that followed him than to any that had come before
*--Having despaired of receiving any pardon from tsarist officials, Lavrov escaped from exile and went into political emigration for the final thirty years of his life. As an émigré, Lavrov quickly (and somewhat surprisingly) assumed a position of high moral esteem and editorial responsibility within burgeoning revolutionary movements in Russia
*1869:Nikolai Mikhailovskii (1842-1904), published "What is Progress" [Edie,2:170-98, esp. 177-87]. Mikhailovskii was at the very beginning of a long career in journalism and was much influenced by Lavrov's "subjective sociology". Mikhailovskii was now launched on a career as "public intellectual". He was one of the first to come to maturity in the years in which Russians actually used the word "intelligentsia" [ID]. Like many of his generation, he took inspiration from Lavrov's realistic subjectivism. However, also like many contemporaries, he had only a slight inclination toward Lavrov's eventual full commitment to the cause of revolution. Mikhailovskii remained a moderate supporter -- never "underground" or émigré -- of a progressive political trend that came to be called "legal populism"
*--Continue "populism" LOOP<>1868:CUBA rebelled unsuccessfully against Spanish version of European imperialism. CUBA and Puerto Rico all that remained of Spanish empire in the New World after the independence revolutions of the 1820s.
<>1868:England, London | Herbert Spencer, Social Statics described a new "social Darwinism" with emphasis on "natural selection" and the beneficial results that came from "the survival of the fittest", not just out there in the animal and vegetable world but also in the social world of humans. Social Darwinism influenced anti-welfare and anti-egalitarian politics around the globe and gave an intellectual justification for some of the suffering that resulted from "laissez-faire" policies [CCC2,2:727 CCC3,2:834]
*--This was not the intention of the biologist Darwin, but the science had become an "ism" = DarwinISM
*--Nor was it Spencer's explicit intention, but popularizations of his teachings also fed into growing racism of the late 19th century
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Rimlinger [TXT] offers a paragraph on social Darwinism<>1868:Russian pundit Dmitrii Pisarev drowned
*--Pisarev wrote "Nineteenth-Century Scholasticism" (1861), "Bazarov" [a powerful review of Turgenev's novel "Fathers and Children"] (1862), "Flowers of Innocent Humor" (1864), "The Realists" (1864) [VSB,3:641-3] See Edie,2:66-108, and Pisarev, Selected Philosophical, Social and Political Essays (MVA:1958)
*--Described USA [Plotkin,Pisarev:35f]<>1868se01:Switzerland | Russian political émigré in western Europe and anarchist activist Mikhail Bakunin wrote "Our Program" for the revolutionary journal Narodnoe delo [People's Cause] [VSB,3:644]. The movement that gathered around this volatile and now revived old activist and his publication was a clear sign that the poet Nikolai Nekrasov was right. Nekrasov predicted that the policies of the tsarist state bred revolutionists, not citizens
*--A website on Bakunin. featuring many of his writings
*--Other Bakunin writings =
1867de:"Federalism, Socialism, and Anti-theologism" VSB,3:643-4 1871no:letter to "My Italian Friends" VSB,3:645 1873:State &Anarchy VSB,3:645-7 The Political Philosophy of Bakunin (an anthology) *--In this same year, with Sergei Nechaev, Bakunin wrote "Catechism of a revolutionary" [Full English TXT | full Russian TXT | excerpts = DIR2:301-8 | VSB,3:649 | cf. Edie,1:385-423]
*--Bakunin caught European attention during the Revolution of 1848 [ID], spent time in Siberian exile, escaped, and more recently rose to prominence in the First International [ID]
*--Now in the final eight years of his life Bakunin began for the first time to have some influence on social movements in Russia in the era of revolutionary populism
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*--VRR, ch.2 on Bakunin and ch.15 on Nechaev<>1868no26:USA Oklahoma Territories, Washita River | General George Custer launched surprise winter-season attack on large Native American village [W] [MAP]
*--The four-year Great Plains wars were drawing to an end
*--Superior logistical strength and a firm resolve to wage aggressive war against all aspects of Native American life were paying off for Euro-American invaders.
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Hutton:56-76, 99-100 summarizes the Washita winter war with special emphasis on lessons applied there from the Civil War, for example, from the bombardment of civilian targets in Vicksburg<>1869:1895; Central Asia | Turkmen territories absorbed into Russian Empire
*--West of the Black Sea, Balkan tensions mounted and Russian-Turkish relations deteriorated as the focus of the Great Game shifted to south-eastern Europe<>1869:English political-economist John Stuart Mill, "The Subjection of Women" [TXT]
*--John Stuart Mill was the last representative of the century-long "classical economist" tradition, and he carried that liberal tradition a great distance toward emerging European social-democratic views<>1869:French democrat Leon Gambetta running for election asked electors to draw up a program for him to follow if elected. Belleville Program became a model for French democratic politics for years [DPH:309-10]
<>1869:Russian chemist Dmitrii Mendeleev (1834-1907) stated his "periodic law" of the elements and laid the foundation for much of the rapid progress that followed in the study of chemistry around the world
*--In that same year, pundit Nikolai Danilevskii, published his Russia and Europe [Excerpts=KMM:195-211 | DIR2:328-37 | RRC2,2#33]
*--Danilevskii compared USA and Russia [KMM:207-8]
*1888:Vladimir Solov'ev critique of Danilevskii [KMM:214f | also VSB,3:731]
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*--R. E. MacMaster, Danilevsky: A Russian Totalitarian Philosopher<>1869su:Russian émigré revolutionist Sergei Nechaev wrote program for his revolutionary journal Narodnaia rasprava [People's Vengeance] [VSB,3:647]
*--The extraordinarily rebellious 22-year-old Nechaev was, in a sense, adopted by the 55-year-old Bakunin. Bakunin had an international reputation, but his contact with actual Russian politics had until these years been very theoretical and tangential. He now welcomed even this darkly sinister Nechaev. Together, they conspired to gain control over the resources that had allowed Herzen's highly esteemed Kolokol [ID] to be published. Together, Bakunin and Nechaev helped introduce an extreme element of revolutionary conspiracy and life-dedication into Russian populism
\\
*--Julicher: chapter 9<>1869au:German Marxists rejected Lassalle's radical reformist approach to labor organization with its close ties to the Bismarckian state. They formed an independent Social-Democratic Workers Party [Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei] and ratified its Eisenach Program [DPH:155-6]
*--In these years, national workers movements were strengthened by association with an international labor organization, the First International
*--Now, in Germany, a political party for the first time based itself on the new social formation, wage-labor
*--In Russia this year, Nikolai Flerovskii [Bervi-Flerovskii] published his Condition of the Working Class in Russia [LDH:253-8]. Bervi-Flerovskii captured the imagination of the Russian reading public with his reportorial precision and his moral indignation as he described rural, suburban and urban labor conditions
*--Karl Marx was learning to read Russian so that he might make himself directly familiar with a new generation of Russian social critics, including Flerovskii. Marx was beginning to see that he had so far neglected or misunderstood the global meaning of rural wage-labor in unindustrialized or agrarian "modes of production" such as Russia but also such as in much of the non-European industrializing world<>1870:Saint Petersburg Association of Russian Playwrights formed with Aleksandr Ostrovskii as president
*--Also, the Peredvizhniki or "Itinerants" or "Company of Itinerant Art Exhibits" formed. See, e.g., Arkhip Kuindzhi's landscape "After the Storm" [Posle grozy] 1879
*--A Century of Russian ballet : documents and accounts 1810-1910
*--Aleksandra A. Orlova, Musorgsky's days and works: A biography in documents Cf. 1859my01
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*--Alain Besançon, "The Dissidence of Russian Painting" in CSH:381-411
*--Richard Taruskin, Opera and Drama in Russia: As Preached and Practiced in the 1860s
*--Elizabeth Valkenier, Russian Realist Art: The State and Society; the Peredvizhniki and Their Tradition<>1870:Japan, Tokyo Kyoto Nagasaki and Hakodate. ??ROchx missions estab in JPN. Archbishop Nikolai(861:GO) est. TOK smnandscl. 1st JPN blt svt and ikon specialists
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*--Togawa"Russian and Slavic:6
*--KEJ,6:3-4<>1870:USA | About 32 nation-wide labor unions were in existence. Workers were organizing themselves in the face of forceful resistance of industrialists and financiers, and their political allies. Self-organized wage-laborers, represented a check and balance on "capitalists" and their own self-organized economic interests
<>1870:1899; Mature international grain trade fully operational. This and the appearance of international energy competition are signs that the epoch of "the second industrial revolution" was opening
*--In addition to earlier corporations -- Bunge, Louis Dreyfus [family name with dash, company without], and Pillsbury -- several more great global grain-trading family corporations formed in these years = Cargill, General Mills, Continental, 1877:Switzerland | Georges André
*1870:USA | William Cargill began to buy grain elevators
*1871:USA railroad connected Minneapolis with eastern markets
*1871:An air-puff purification process made flour whiter
*1874:Russia ceased to be the main source of grain for England
*1878my02:Minneapolis | Washburn Mill exploded. Built new mill with stolen Hungarian mill technique, able to mill hard grains
*1880:Global grain-trade routes thickened and extended themselves vigorously in the late 19th and 20th centuries [maps]
*1883:Liverpool grain market allowed trading in “futures” | Very quickly grain exchange “clubs” or “rings” became active in the London “Baltic Mercantile and Shipping Exchange” | The Baltic Exchange was founded over a hundred years earlier (1746), but now economic modernization, especially the growth of industrial urban centers, with huge non-agricultural populations, “democratized” bread production and created a need to feed swelling factory-labor populations. The grain-trade was becoming a trans-national corporate enterprise
*1880s: world grain trade concentrated in USA, Russia, Canada, Argentina, Australia, and India
*1875:Minneapolis produced 850,000 barrels of flour; profit = $0.50/barrel
*1885:Minneapolis produced 5,000,000 barrels of flour; profit = $4.00/barrel, but power shifting to big grain dealers who were able to handle world-striding storage and transportation
*1886:Minneapolis | Frank Peavey built world’s largest grain terminal [W#1] [W#2] [W#3] | More about grain elevators, with pix at bottom = [W#4]
*1890s:Russian branch of Louis Dreyfus grain trade managed by the founder’s son, Charles, in the Black Sea ports
*1895:OR Portland | Frank Peavey built a one million bushel grain elevator and shipped wheat down the Pacific coast, then overland at the Isthmus of Panama into the Caribbean Sea and across the Atlantic Ocean to Liverpool, England
*1899:MN Minneapolis | Peavey constructed 80-foot high concrete grain elevator
*1870:USA grain export = $60,000,000
*1898:USA grain export = $200,000,000
*1900s:Russian tsar invited Peavey’s son-in-law to visit
*--GO 1972su:USA-USSR<>1870je16:Russian urban reform promoted municipal self administration [VSB,3:621-2]
*--Russian text Gorodovoe polozhenie... [RA2:232f]
*--Just as self-administration was apparently promoted now in the countryside (Zemstvo institutions of self-administration), so also in the cities, in growing modern urban centers
*--Only one "great reform" remained<>1870jy:Franco-Prussian war broke out; France humiliated [DPH:200-205]
<>1870jy18(NS):Rome, Vatican City | The Papal See of the Catholic Church handed down a pronouncement on the infallibility of the Pope [DPH:243]
<>1870se04:French Third Republic declared as Louis Napoleon III fell in disgrace [DPH:310-11]
*--Two dark decades in French political life came to an end; but what followed was not all light =<>1871fe26(NS):France, in the great French national monument, the Versailles Palace near Paris | Treaty signed ending Franco-Prussian war
*--German Kaiser [emperor, German version of Caesar, just as "tsar" is the Russian form] crowned at Versailles. NB! this is in France, the great palace of the Sun King, Louis XIV, and the location was an intentional insult to the humiliated France of Napoleon III
*--A united German imperial state was now created [MAP] [compare with MAP of Germany before union]
*--Kaiser Wilhelm I (King of Prussia) offered views on the new united German imperial throne [DPH:262-3]
*--Otto von Bismarck was the man behind the throne
*--Prussian kingdom grew to great power over the previous century
*--Prussian kingdom survived a stormy half century since the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire
*--Prussian kingdom now provided the backbone for a new north-central European German Empire. German-speaking peoples now lived in and dominated two great states = Germany and Austria
*1888:Upon Kaiser Wilhelm I’s death, Wilhelm II assumed the throne
*1918no09:At the end of World War One, the Hohenzollern monarchy collapsed after 47 years of new German imperial unity<>1871:English biologist Charles Darwin published Descent of Man [excerpts = PWT2:227-] in which he stated boldly, "The main conclusion here arrived at, and now held by many naturalists who are well competent to form a sound judgment, is that man is descended from some less highly organized form." All biological observations, he wrote, "point in the plainest manner to the conclusion that man is the co-descendant with other mammals of a common progenitor". He also stated bluntly that the educated person "cannot any longer believe that man is the work of a separate act of creation".
*--Over more than a decade, Darwin published his thoughtful and extraordinarily systematic observations. The reading public found it easy to carry this science to into realms of emotional social/political debate [ID], and Darwin did not always resist the temptation to join this debate<>1871:1872; Fedor Dostoevskii caricatured Russian revolutionists and their soft-headed allies in his novel The Possessed [cf. Edie,2:240-66]
<>1871sp:Russian Mennonites (German speaking Protestant farming peoples who had lived in Russia for a century) initiated plans to migrate to USA
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Saul,2:75-85<>1871mr18:my28; Paris Commune declared the French capital independent from Third Republic France. Lasted about 9 weeks before army crushed it resolutely | [W] [DPH:311-17]
*1871ap19:Declaration [BNE:140-3]
*--International Workingmen's Association in an uproar
*1876:Paris | Prosper Lassagaray published History of the Paris Commune of 1871<>1871je:Russian Education Minister Dmitrii Tolstoi introduced counter-reform measures in education designed to block entrance into universities to all but privileged social formations whose children went through the elite gymnasium. Tolstoi's "classical" education emphasized Orthodox theology, Greek and Latin. These three topics took up about half of all instruction time [VSB,3:622-4]
*--Compare the new elitist Russian elementary and secondary requirements with the knowledge Kansas public-school eighth graders had to demonstrate on graduation exams in 1895<>1871fa:1872wi; Russian Grand Duke Aleksei (son of Alexander II) visited USA and, among other things, hunted Buffalo with General George Custer in Kansas. Civil War General William Tecumseh Sherman, more recently commander of prairie Indian Territory, returned the visit
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Saul,2:54-75<>1872:1874; German state in struggle with Catholic Church, the Kulturkampf [DPH:245-50]
<>1872:1883; German composer Richard Wagner created theatre (Festspielhaus) in Bayreuth, Bavaria, where annual music festivals allowed for the first time proper staging of his massive and revolutionary operas
<>1872:Japan, Hakodate | First Russian language schools established. Russian psalmist Vissarion L'vovich Sartov and Japanese assistant taught languages, math, geography and history in Russian.
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Togawa"Russian and Slavic:5<>1872:International Workingmen's Association [First International] collapsed. Titanic struggles between German-born political-economist Karl Marx and Russian revolutionary anarchist Mikhail Bakunin neutralized the eight-year old organization
*--European, largely French activists, followers of peasant-born anarchist Pierre Proudhon, also added their contentiousness to the mix
*--Administrative HQ of the international organization transferred to USA NYC and finally disbanded in 1876
*--Twelve years later, in Paris, Second International founded<>1872:USA Senate rejected USA Presidential plan to build a military base in Samoa Islands
<>1872de:Zurich | If the venerable rebel Bakunin was revived in this new era of revolutionary opposition [ID], 47-year-old Petr Lavrov, ex-artillery Colonel, ex-professor of mathematics, and aspiring philosopher of notable promise, was now "reborn". He now accepted a role as émigré revolutionary ideologist and wrote "Our Program" for his Russian revolutionary journal Vpered! [Foreward] [VSB,3:651]
*--The era of Herzen [ID] was over, and now Lavrov and Bakunin became ideological rivals within Russian revolutionary populist circles in the era of the "Going to the People"
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*--VRR, ch.17 on Bakunin and Lavrov<>1873:Tokyo | School of Foreign Languages included Russian. ??NB! TOK.unv excluded Russian, showing stt comparative indifference to Russia. Prior to Meiji, 6 samurai svt gt.Russia to std; 868:rtr.JPN and fade away, while std frm zpd and USA bcm sig Meiji srv. BUT this scl hired Mechnikov, Lev (ppl and Ntx1) and one of Russian samurai Ichikawa Bunkichi
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Togawa"Russian and Slavic:6-7<>1873:USA PA Pittsburgh | Scottish-born immigrant Andrew Carnegie (1835-1919) was now eight years into a brilliant career as industrialist, concentrated on building a colossal steel manufacturing enterprise
*--During the US Civil War, he served as a War Department railway division bureaucrat. He instantly saw an industrial future opening before him. Inspired by his war-time procurement experiences, in 1865 he entered the steel business. Victory of the North in the American Civil War and an associated industrial productivity boom launched the careers of several of the most famous entrepreneurs of modern history, including Andrew Carnegie
*--Pittsburgh PA was the base of operations for future internationally connected billionaire financier Andrew Mellon (1855-1937)
*--Mellon’s father, Thomas, who laid the foundations of the family fortune, wrote an autobiography = Thomas Mellon and His Times
*--In the boom years after the Civil War, Andrew Mellon built mightily on his father’s fortune, concentrating on banking, coal, oil, railroads, public utilities, steel, aluminum, and eventually in the aviation industry. He showed a masterly control of diverse but vertically integrated economic enterprises, and he understood the central role of finance capital (positioning the manufacturing process itself, and certainly labor, in a position subordinate to financial profit considerations), but he also understood the role of governmental power and the sometimes shady political manipulation of the “free market”. The market he worked in cannot be described as altogether “free”, or laissez-faire, or simply entrepreneurial. Mellon was an active supporter of the pro-business and bribe-prone Republican-Party political machine in Pennsylvania
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*--David Cannadine, Mellon: An American Life<>1874:1875; Russian "Going to the People" movement [RRC2,2:344-57] Russian revolutionary populist movement intensified. This was one of the most dramatic confrontations between urban elites and village folk in Russian history. Officials were alarmed. Official policy had always controlled and restrained spontaneous "inter-soslovie" intercourse. Official policy prevented anything like a "public sphere" to evolve within the tightly restricted social/service hierarchies [ID]. Now thousands of city folk broke with conventional practices and spilled out into the countryside to mix with the village folk
*1875:Justice Minister Konstantin Pahlen’s memo on that subject reported that investigations had so far turned up 770 activists from all "strata" of imperial society, active in 37 provinces. And these were just the ones snared in official investigations. The failure of students and others to adhere to assigned roles defined by their "stratum" appeared to Pahlen to be a symptom of wide moral decay. Pahlen was shocked to report that students shed themselves of their university uniform, the outward sign of their stratum, and that they took on the garb of villagers as they attempted to mix freely with them. One soslovie imitating another and unauthorized socializing by any group were illegal in Russia. Pahlen emphasized the broad sympathy for this movement among all strata of Russian society. He expressed amazement that "many persons no longer young, fathers and mothers of families, who enjoy material security and a more or less honored social position, not only failed to oppose the young people but, on the contrary, often gave them open encouragement, help, and support". These folks seemed not to understand that this movement to the people threatened the very foundations of Russian life. Activists among the folk distributed revolutionary socialist books published by Russian émigrés abroad [VSB,3:654-6]
*--The most characteristic Russian "ideological" trends in this epoch were associated with Petr Lavrov, Mikhail Bakunin (with Sergei Nechaev [ID]), and Petr Tkachev. These pundits, ideologues and theorists have been lumped together under the term "populism". The term is fine so long as we remember that the central concept was radical rural egalitarianism with a good dash of late-nineteenth-century socialism. Populism [narodnichestvo] was an "ism" based on "the people" [narod, with is wide implications of "nation", "the people", "peasants" | TXT on the word "narod"]
*--Populists were democrats in so far as they put their faith in the possibility that the Russian "people" were in a position to shape their own better future. Not all populists saw things that way. Some populists veered from democracy when they pondered the possibility that the people might need the guidance of an advanced "minority" -- an "intelligentsia" [ID]. Even when it was not always democratic, even when it veered toward managerial elitism, Russian populism remained at heart radical rural egalitarianism and in stark opposition to Russian social/service traditions. Populists put a lot of faith in the progressive implications of a pr
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