<>1921:German sociologist Max Weber’s "life work", Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft [Economy and Society], published posthumously. Contained influential treatment of "class and status" [CCS:409-23 | CCS,1:701-15]. A great European, whose career got under way in 1904:1905, had his most influential work published only after his death

<>1921fe22:Soviet Central State Economic Planning Commission [GosPlan] created

<>1921fe27:Georgia [Gruziia] Soviet regime established

<>1921mr01:mr08; Kronstadt (fortress island protecting Peterograd) the scene of a significant rebellion against Communist rule, though in favor of Soviet rule. Resolutions [BNE:239-41 | Chamberlin,2:495-7 | SGv:147-8 | DPH:435-6 | Voline:passim | PWT2:298-300]

<>1921mr08:mr16; Communist Party Congress #10 [McC2:207-14]
*--Resolution on Unity [Chamberlin,2:497-9 | SGv:149 | DPH:436-7]

<>1921mr16:English-Russian commerce [Senn,2:]

<>1921mr18:Poland gained recognition of independence by Treaty of Riga, which favored Poland (1/3 of the population in the new Poland were non-Poles, mainly East-Slavic peoples of Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine)

<>1921mr23:1927de; Soviet Republic [soon the USSR] declared New Economic Policy [NEP] which lasted seven years
*--Comparison of the 1921 Soviet economy with the last pre-WW1 year of the Imperial economy (1913) [McC2:257]
*--The so-called "War communism" of Revolutionary Civil War period relaxed. Radical Communist restructuring of the Soviet economic system was postponed (some thought forever)
*--The agricultural economy, including the growing number of "Russian farmers", and the small-scale commercial economy were allowed to operate without direct state control
*--Decree on tax in kind, etc [Chamberlin,2:499-503 | SGv:323-4 | DPH:437-8]
*--The state did retain control over the "commanding heights" of the economy = banking, currency, foreign trade, heavy industrial productivity, means of communication and transportation, national labor organizations, etc
*--Industrial wage-labor disturbances in this year cautioned against letting workers go free in their unions [Page]
*1921mr27:Lenin outlined the threats to the revolution [BNE:241-]
*1921ap05:Soviet commercial and trade concessions to Germany and Italy [McC2:241]
*1921ap07:Russian-German negotiations [McC2:195-6]
*1921my30:Army called in to perform significant economic tasks [McC2:238-9]
*1921jy08:Nikolai Bukharin, "The New Economic Policy of Soviet Russia"
*--USA journalist William Henry Chamberlin witnessed and described NEP [P20:115]
*--USA labor activist and pacifist Anna Louise Strong traveled from Seattle to Russia, working for the American Friends Service Committee relief mission, and wrote descriptions of famine and socialist construction during NEP, The First Time in History: Two Years of Russia's New Life, August, 1921, to December, 1923 (1924), with an introduction by Leon Trotsky. Website excerpts. NB! her chapter on the Russian oil enterprise and its place in the larger story of the Russian Revolution. [Connect with the petroleum LOOP] She also wrote accounts of famine relief in the Volga basin [W]
*--This marked the beginning of a period that Moshe Lewin has titled Lenin's Last Struggle (1968), three years from NEP to 1924ja21:Lenin's death. These first three years of NEP provided a chance for the Revolution to take a different path than that forced by circumstances of WW1 and Civil War. A central vexing problem was how to balance Party power with wage-labor authority, or at least "in-put". However, Lenin's last struggle was not successful, or perhaps not full-hearted. These years were merely a prelude to the rise of Stalinism
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Rimlinger:252-69 [TXT]

<>1921je:jy; Mikhail Gerzhenzon & Viacheslav Ivanov, Correspondence from Two Corners [Raeff3:373f]

<>1921jy:Soviet Republic hosted Third World Congress of the Communist International [RFP2,2:158-61]

<>1921fa:1922wi; Soviet Republic suffered famine
*1921oc:Volga region famine described by Philip Gibbs [Eye:493-5]

<>1921no05:Mongolia and the Soviet Republic signed treaty after Mongolia broke away from China

<>1921de06:Ireland and Great Britain signed Treaty of Irish independence
*1922:1923; Ireland soon locked in a bloody civil war. One of the two big Irish political parties, Fianna Fail, was founded by Eamon de Valera, the man who led the opposition to the 1921 treaty that forged the new southern Irish state. Valera felt that the pact tied Ireland too closely to Britain. He would not accept the oath of allegiance to the English King which the treaty required. He and his associates also resented the division of Northern Ireland from the Irish Free State and the continuation of English rule there
*--The other big Irish party, Fine Gael, was later created by those who accepted the treaty. By 1923, they had crushed de Valera's rebels. In the decades to come, these two political parties kept the hostilities alive that had fueled the murderous civil war. Then there arose another major party, Labour, which grew from a faction in the rebel ranks that hoped the rising against imperial dominion of the English would spark a Marxist revolution of workers against all bourgeois exploiters
*1960s:1997; IRA conducted a war of terrorism against English power
*1997:The IRA declared a cease-fire
*2005:The IRA disarmed, making it possible again to celebrate the Easter Uprising, banned in Ireland since 1966

<>1921de19:de22; USSR Communist Party conference11 officially named the new revolutionary nation the "Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" (USSR), which was to survive seventy years, almost to the day, until 1991de31

<>1922:England | C. E. Montague, Disenchantment [BNE:211-5]

<>1922:Irish author James Joyce published Ulysses in book form [TXT], a great 20th-century fine arts landmark. Joyce was "Irish" by birth and steeped in a half-millennium of Irish history, but he was pan-European by avocation. Like so many leading figures of 20th-century high art, he lived the life of the émigré
*--In this same year, USA-born émigré in England T.S. Eliot published his challenging and characteristic poem "The Waste Land" [TXT]. Eliot had warned that “poetry, in our civilization, as it exists at present, must be difficult”
*--Readers on their own have difficulty with Joyce and much else in 20th-century high culture. They have often had to seek guidance -- “mediation” -- from cultural/literary commentators. The European “audience” has always had Joyce’s challenging literary art “mediated”.  An English critic wrote [2005ap29:TLS:3] =

Disorientated by the radical novelty of Ulysses, many early readers relied instead on the critical compass of insiders like Larbaud, whose influential 1922 essay in La Nouvelle Revue Française had been informed by access to Joyce’s private schemata of the novel’s structure. This experience of heavily mediated reading remains just as true today. Joyce asks that we be well versed in Catholic rite, fluent in Latin and with few snatches of Greek, on intimate terms with Homer, naturally, but no less with Dante, Shakespeare, St Augustine, Aristotle, Aquinas, music hall, opera, the Celtic twilight, and the demography, topography and historiography of turn-of-the-century Dublin -- the whole kit and boodle in a word. Because our cultural competence is not up to the task now, if ever it were, we fall back on a wealth of reference materials.... Where earlier reviewers complained of the book’s unreadability, today’s critics regard this resistance to reading as a legitimate means of keeping the work ‘open’

*--Geert Lernout and Wim Van Mierlo, eds., The Reception of James Joyce in Europe | noUO
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*--[W]

<>1922ja26:China and USSR issued Joint statement of Sun Yat-sen and A. A. Joffe [RFP2,1:177-8] Official USSR Communist Party position was to support nationalist "liberal" Kuomintang party in China
*1922fe06:USA Washington, DC | Belgium, Great Britain, China, France, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Portugal, USA signed Nine-Power Treaty on China  | RWP1,3:222-4]
*--Sun's decade of greatest political influence on events was nearing its end, but his legacy lived on in his party, the Kuomintang, which played a central role in Chinese  politics throughout the 20th century

<>1922ja31:German financier Walther Rathenau became German Foreign Minister

<>1922mr:ap; USSR Communist Party congress #11. Joseph Stalin became First Secretary [F/] of Central Committee [F/] of Communist Party of the USSR. Fundamental institutions of one-party rule now firmly in place: Politbiuro [F/] and Secretariat (led by First Secretary or sometimes General Secretary or "Gensek") the central ruling group within the highest larger "representative" body, the Central Committee. GPU [F/] [State Political Control—the centralized state secret police] replaced Cheka [F/]
*--Tomskii speech criticized wage-labor strikes [SGv:409f]
*1922:Main Administration for Affairs of Literature and Publication (Glavlit) created. It functioned into the final years of the USSR as the main institution administering Soviet censorship of the print media [PS&C:132-5]
*1922:USSR revolutionary leader Leon Trotsky published Dictatorship vs. Democracy [CCS:945-67 | CCS,2:557-79]
*1922:OGPU (Ob"edinnenoe gosudarstvennoe politicheskoe upravlenie; Unified State Political Control—i.e., state police) established
*1926:Law on OGPU prohibited changes in OGPU personnel above rank of ordinary agent, except from Moscow; i.e., limited provincial control & strengthened Moscow control. Police everywhere instituted as arm of central state, another institutional foundation for Stalinism

<>1922mr01:Sweden signed commercial treaty with USSR

<>1922ap:USSR diplomat Georgii Chicherin expressed views on Reconstruction [Senn,2:]

<>1922ap16:German-Soviet Rapallo Treaty resumed normal diplomatic and commercial relations and recognized USSR as "great power" [DPH:461-2 | Senn,2:]. Thus the two "renegade states" of Europe, Germany in defeat and Russia in revolution, gave one another support while other European governments continued to insist on German payment of indemnities to the victorious Allies and Soviet payment of tsarist debts (mainly connected with WW1) to Allied treasuries and bankers

<>1922my:Russian Orthodox Church Patriarch Tikhon arrested

<>1922my24:Italy signed commercial treaty with USSR
*--Commercial relations in the first year or so of NEP [LOOP]

<>1922my25:Vladimir Lenin 1st stroke

<>1922je24:German Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau murdered by right-wing nationalists

<>1922au04;au07; Communist Part Congress #12 [McC2:214-17]

<>1922se19:Germany, Kiel | USA author Ernest Hemingway described scene of economic collapse [Eye:497-501]
*--In a matter of a few months, the Deutschmark had fallen from 162 to the USA dollar to 7000 DM/dollar. Within a year, it fell to 4.2 trillion DM to the dollar! [I.e., it evaporated]
*1923:Konrad Heiden, The Ruinous Inflation [P20:153]

<>1922oc:Vladivostok,Siberia | Japan withdrew its forces from the vital Russian port after almost 4 years of occupation, since the early days of the Revolutionary Civil War

<>1922oc30:1943jy26; Italian Fascist Party came to power and remained for 21 years after Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) led march of para-military supporters on Rome [DPH:387-8] The Fascists were a political party in mold of the Nazis. They could claim to be the original European fascist-style party
*--On the very eve of this success, Mussolini delivered a speech in Naples in which he said, "We have created our myth. The myth is a faith, it is passion. It is not necessary that it shall be a reality. It is a reality by the fact that it is a good, a hope, a faith, that it is courage. Our myth is the Nation, our myth is the greatness of the Nation! And to this myth, to this grandeur, which we wish to translate into a complete reality, we subordinate all the rest" [BMC1:649-50]
*--"Life under Fascism" [W]
*--Photo exhibits = [pix] [pix]
*1932:ex.USSR leader Leon Trotsky explained, from his Communist point of view, how Fascism succeeded in Italy, with reference also to the looming possibility of Nazi victory in Germany [TXT]

<>1922oc30:USSR | NEP era labor law [SGv:413-24]

<>1922no:USSR hosted Fourth World Congress of the Comintern [RFP2,2:161-5] Marxist ideology was being tailored to meet needs of a world wider than northwest Europe =
*1923:Pod znamenam Marksizma#1:177-8 | Petr Stuchka on the inconsistencies in the Marxist theory of Basis [Unterbau] and Superstructure [Überbau] [Jaworskyj:99] Compare with post-Stalinist essay over thirty years later on the same topic

<>1922no01:Turkey | Mustafa Kemal (Kemal Pasha or Kemal Atatürk) led modernizing revolution to power at the head of a rebel army. Declared the Ottoman Empire dead, pulled down the old state, moved government headquarters (capital) to Ankara, and declared a Turkish Republic

<>1922no16:Italian Chamber of Deputies heard Fascist Party leader Mussolini's speech [DPH:388-9]

<>1922no18:USSR | Bukharin issued policy statement on the right of "red intervention", a foreign policy justification for pre-emptive strikes against bourgeois power anywhere in the interests of the liberation of the world proletariat

<>1922de13:de30; USSR formally declared. First Transcaucasian Congress of Soviets (Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaidzhan) brought the formal proposal to the First All-Russian Congress of Soviets (Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaidzhan, Belarus, Ukraine and Russia [RSFSR]). 1924ja13:Approved

<>1922de23:1923ja04; Vladimir Lenin's "Testament" [TXT] dictated over two week period [SGv:155-9]. A critique of Joseph Stalin and others, but essentially a belated call for radical democratization of Party and state

<>1923:Austrian-born Hebrew scholar and moral philosopher Martin Buber published I and Thou in which he described a highly personal relationship between the individual and God, a relationship which provided the ideal model for all human relationships, subjective dialogue rather than interaction between objectivities. In 1929 he published an essay "Zwiesprache" [dialogue] which concentrated on this idea [CCS,1:337-61]

<>1923:NYC etc | Sergei Esenin, "An Iron Mirgorod" [Hasty:144-58]

<>1923:Spanish philosopher José Ortega y Gasset (1883-1955) published El tema de nuestro tiempo [1931:translated as The Modern Theme] in which he argued that "the modern theme is to subject reason to living, to localize it within the biological field, to subordinate it to the spontaneous". He celebrated razon vital [living reason; rationality for life] [CCS,2:709-729]

<>1923:USSR and Finland sought advisory opinion in international law from the League of Nations Permanent Court of International Justice [ID] regarding jurisdiction in eastern Karelia [RWP1,2]

<>1923ja:German industrial center in the Ruhr area was occupied by French and Belgian troops to ensure that Germany make reparation payments. German officials adopted passive resistance to occupying forces [DPH:412-13]
*--Versailles settlement crumbled yet further

<>1923mr04:Lenin published his last substantial piece, "Better Fewer, But Better" [TXT] [Moshe Lewin, Lenin's Last Struggle:156-74]
*--A comparison of this work with Lenin's famous What's to be Done? twenty years earlier helps measure the evolution of his political thought
*1923:1925; Documents of Soviet History, v3 [DSH,3]

<>1923my12:Italian periodical Il Mundo employed the political term “totalitarian” to describe a kind of political order. Fascist Party leader Mussolini coined and used, with approval, the political term totalitario

<>1923jy24:Turkey | Convention Relating to the Regime of the Straits [TXT#1 and TXT#2]
*--Revolutionary Turkey was the only defeated power in WW1 to force revision of the peace terms imposed by victorious allies at the Paris Peace Conference [ID] (e.g., Versailles). In this year, Mustafa Kemal [pix] created the "Republican People's Party" and began to fashion a modernizing, secular, one-party state, taking inspiration from the Soviet Revolution. Kemal's political party was in the Leninist tradition

<>1923se:German officials called off passive resistance to Allied occupation of Ruhr district
*--Within the next year the "Dawes Plan" put reparation payments back on track, still without any time limit. Heavy payments from Germany continued for six more years, until the Dawes Plan was replaced by a less harsh "Young Plan" in 1929 [DPH:413-118]

<>1923de06:USA President Coolidge on "interrupted" USA foreign policy and on the special problem of Russia and earlier famine relief, with Soviet responses [RFP2,2:37-9]

<>1924:China | Kuomintang declaration [SPE2:875-9] China

<>1924:USA culture critic Gilbert Seldes published The Seven Lively Arts, a pioneer study of popular commercial arts [pop-arts] or commercial culture in the new electronic media. Seldes expressed an open willingness to find all that was best in the new commercial media [bibliography]
*--Gilbert Seldes' brother George Seldes [ID] was also an influential pundit

<>1924:German novelist Thomas Mann published his third great novel, Der Zauberberg [The Magic Mountain] which portrayed the details in the life of a young middle-class man visiting a TB sanatorium as WW1 loomed. Somehow, though not originally sick, the young man stayed in the mountain-top sanatorium. There he cast his many petty and creature-comfort-oriented personal agonies and ecstasies across the ruined but somehow still beautiful European bourgeois cultural landscape

<>1924:Russian political émigré, ex-terrorist and anti-Bol'shevik insurgent Boris Savinkov slipped over the border into the USSR but was soon arrested
*--Savinkov was forced to flee the USSR six years earlier. He wrote fascinating Memoirs of a Terrorist
*--Now he fell into the hands of Soviet authorities, was put on trial, and imprisoned. He committed suicide the following year, ending a fabulous two-decade political career

<>1924ja13:USSR Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets approved first USSR Constitution, based on deliberations that got under way in 1922de. This first constitution took the form of a Declaration and a "Treaty", the first Union Treaty, among the unifying republics [SGv:51-62]
*--Passport regulations in the early Soviet period [PS&C:161-3]
*1923 essay by Soviet Marxist ideologist I. Podvolotskii argued that civil rights were a bourgeois deception [Jaworskyj:114-17]
*1924 essays by N. V. Krylenko on the Marxist concept of Law and State and on the conflict between socialist theory and Soviet reality [ibid:142-9, 162-78] Compare with a theoretical discussion ten years later
*1926 essay by I. Naumov on "legal nihilism" [ibid:247-51]

<>1924ja21:Vladimir Il'ich Lenin died, ending a remarkable revolutionary career that spanned 28 years

<>1924ap:Moscow | Joseph Stalin (1879-1953) laid his ideological claim to Communist Party leadership with a series of lectures, later gathered and augmented in a booklet Foundations of Leninism [CWC:233-51 | BPE:560-72 | MDF:122-3]
*--With this work Stalin first suggested the idea of "socialism in one country". [On dialectical and historical materialism, see BMC1:626-34 & BMC4:731-8]
*--Stalin and Trotsky were locked in an ideological struggle with immense implications for the Marxist legitimacy of the Soviet Union. Stalin staked all on the concept of "socialism in one country" and Trotsky on "permanent revolution" [TXT]

<>1924my31:China & USSR Agreement on General Principles [RFP2,1:179-83]

<>1924oc02:Geneva Protocol set procedures and obligations in connection with the League of Nations effort to settle international disputes without war [DPH:462-5] The protocols failed due to English refusal to ratify them

<>1924de:USSR hosted Fifth World Congress of the Communist International [RFP2,2:165-9]

<>1925:1926; NYC, Chicago, etc.| Vladimir Maiakovskii, "My Discovery of America" [Hasty:159-220]

<>1925:Germany | Austrian-born political conspirator Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) described his main political ideas with bold clarity, Mein Kampf [My struggle TXT] [CWC:191-218 | BMC4:748-9] This text became the main ideological foundation of the Nazi movement
*1926:German intellectual Friedrich Jünger presented anti-democratic argument based on his sense of a "new nationalism" [P20:154 | PWT2:328-31]

<>1925:Italy, Perugia | Fascist Party activist Alfredo Rocco delivered authoritative speech in which he defined "The Political Doctrine of Fascism" [CCS:1015-36 | CCS,2:648-69 | BMC1:640-6 | BMC4:738-44]

<>1925:USSR scholar and Marxist ideologist D. Riazanov published article [TXT] on Engels' Peasant War in Germany

<>1925:Spanish writer and thinker Miguel de Unamuno published The Agony of Christianity [CCS,2:858-72] Born in Basque country, Unamuno grew up mindful of cultural distinctions. He resisted simple-minded generalizations like "Europe" and "The West". His thought was full of lively paradox, and he placed highest value on immediate experience. He and Ortega y Gasset contributed a distinct, innovative yet traditional flavor to 20th century thought, a "Spanish" flavor, if you find such generalizations to your taste

<>1925ja:USSR War Commissar Leon Trotsky dismissed under attack from moderates in Communist Party, led by Nikolai Bukharin [RRC1,3:534-41]
*--Having sided with Stalin against Trotsky, now Bukharin would come under attack from Stalin

<>1925ap:USSR Communist Party congress12; Joseph Stalin announced concept of "socialism in one country", shocking conventional Marxist ideologists who all presumed, as Lenin had for so long, that no true socialist revolution was possible in an economy ("mode of production") as undeveloped as Russia's

<>1925oc16:Locarno Treaties negotiated by France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and England in an effort normalize relations in the post-WW1 era. For the first time in this era, Germany met as a sovereign equal in open diplomatic parley with the other European states, and the intention was to mop up some part of the mess created by the Versailles Treaty. The central issue was regularization of Germany's borders to east and west. Locarno marked the high point of European inter-state goodwill between WW1 and WW2 [DPH:465-8] Several treaties were signed in these sessions =
*--Germany agreed with France to recognize borders set in the Versailles Treaty, in exchange for German entry into the League of Nations
*--Germany and eastern European states failed to achieve as much, but they agreed at least to diplomacy and arbitration
*--England refused to sign on with France to those provisions that guaranteed east European borders. England was concerned only with the German threat in the westward direction. This was the major flaw of Locarno diplomacy. Thus, France signed independent mutual defense pacts with Poland and Czechoslovakia against Germany, not at all in the spirit of Locarno or the League of Nations

<>1925de24:Italian parliament neutralized by laws that allowed Mussolini to rule as a Fascist dictator [DPH:389-90]

<>1925de25:Moscow premier of two movies: ROBIN HOOD, starring Douglas Fairbanks, and BATTLESHIP POTEMKIN, directed by Sergei Eisenstein
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*--Richard Schickel, "Cinema Paradiso", 99su:WQu 23,3:56-70, a brief history of movies ("film") as a world cultural phenomenon, lamenting decline in recent years. Moscow premier is the central symbolic moment in his tale of movies and the pop-arts

<>1926:Austrian Count Richard N. Coudenhove-Kalergi argued against nationalist and racist doctrines and in support of what he called Pan-Europe [P20:196]

<>1926:English economist John Maynard Keynes published Laissez-Faire and Communism [CCS:754-74] and "The End of Laissez-Faire" [TXT with an antagonistic editorial warning] [Excerpts = BPE:663-8]. In this epoch of serious market-economic collapse and widely expressed hysteria about the apparently thriving revolutionary Soviet economy, with its claim on social justice as well as prosperity, Keynes also wrote "A Short View of Russia"
*--English philosopher Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947) published an influential book on Science and the Modern World [BMC1:606-9 | BMC4:699-701]

<>1926:German political activist Robert Michels explained European class consciousness [CCS,1:739-65]
*--German teacher and free-lance writer Oswald Spengler completed his gloomy Decline of the West [BPE:637-62 | BMC1:683-6 | BMC4:777-80 | CCS,2:485-507 | CCS,1:134-43]. The book wasn't published until after the war. What it lacked in seriousness of content, it made up in popularity. Spengler set the tone for following generations of pop-art pundits. He caught the mood of the time and helped popularize the concept of "The West"

<>1926:Scottish-born USA political philosopher Robert M. MacIver sought to redefine relationship of individual to society and state, to defend liberal and democratic governments from the onslaught of European statist doctrines, in his book The Modern State [CCS,1:631-50]

<>1926ja31:Italian Fascist dictatorship of Mussolini strengthened by law on power of the executive branch to make decrees having the force of legislation or laws [DPH:390]

<>1926ap03:Italian Fascist dictatorship of Mussolini strengthened by law forcing state control over compulsory collective labor relations. Labor unions brought into "Corporative State" and a form of fascist welfare statism put in place [DPH:390-1]

<>1926my03:my12; British General Strike spread for nine days throughout major industrial centers of England, Wales and Northern Ireland
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*--Anne Perkins, A Very British Strike... [noUO], offers an establishmentarian interpretation with more attention to “Communist influence” than to domestic economic and political actualities in the everyday life of wage-laborers

<>1926jy:USA Colonel Raymond Robins decried lack of normal USA-USSR relations [RFP2,2:42-8]

<>1926oc:USSR | Leon Trotsky & other "Joint Opposition" leaders, Leo Kamenev & Grigorii Zinoviev, dismissed from Politbiuro [F/]. [Excerpt from Trotsky's "defense" [TXT]]
*1926:1928; Documents of Soviet History, v4 [DSH,4]

<>1927:1928; French writer André Gide wrote Voyage au Congo and Le retour du Tchad, powerful but straightforward descriptive condemnations of imperialism based on eye-witness experiences in the Congo [CCC2,2:853f CCC3,2:1161-9]

<>1927:1937; Europe-wide era of economic, social and political crisis
*--Dramatic Soviet modernization seemed to rival capitalism. Apparent Soviet success, combined with collapse of the world’s market economies in the Great Depression might be compared with a crudely reversed set of events at the end of the 20th century = apparent US success, combined with "the collapse of Communism". And an even more crude parallel might be seen in the resurgence of Russia and the economic crisis in the "capitalist world" beginning in 2008
*--After WW1 and particularly in the late 1920s, market economies were in shambles. As one result, European welfare programs expanded. Welfare programs were designed to address the needs of labor. One natural motive was to reduce the chance that labor might turn to progressive and socialist movements, or fall under the influence of Soviet Communism. At the same time, Welfare might limit the influence of crisis-driven, far-right fascist-style political movements. Post-WW1 European states were caught not only between a rock (Soviet Communism) and a hard place (radical rightist movements), but had to try to navigate around a perilous "soft place" right in the center of their paths, namely, the revival of 19th-century social democracy. Labor unions were weakened, but still capable of significant self-organization and exertion of economic pressure on "the bosses"
*--Economic collapse in a global GREAT DEPRESSION impacted USA like a meteor, having already for ten years wobbled the orbits of European and world capitalist markets [EG]. USA isolation was not a successful quarantine against world problems. USA isolation exacerbated world problems and intensified the shock when these problems finally caught up to USA
*--Economic and social collapse inspired and served to justify "right-wing" reactionary and well as "left-wing" revolutionary statism =
*--RISE OF FASCIST ITALY and NAZI GERMANY
*--USSR TURNED TO STALINISM, a trend that had been growing in Russia over the previous ten years
*--By the late 1920s, many European nations (e.g,, Austria, Spain) imitated Italy & Germany, rather than the USSR
*--In the broadest sense 20th-century statist radicalism, "right and left" [ID], may be said to have grown from the following trends =

*--World War One opened a new era of "far-right" and "far-left" statist radicalism. Perhaps the France of Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III) was the earliest European harbinger, but now statist radicalism waxed with intensity through World War Two, and it continued to flicker to life again and again, even into the 21st century

<>1927:French philosopher Julien Benda, The Treason of the Intellectuals [BMC4:761-3]

<>1927:German philosopher and educator Martin Heidegger (Marburg University, then Berlin) published Sein und Zeit [translated in 1949 as "Existence and Being"] Heidegger may be thought of as the creator of non-Christian or "esthetic" existentialism
*--Sartre was his student
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*--[W] [W]

<>1927:USSR feminist writer and public figure Aleksandra Kollontai’s novel Red Love, which was taken to advocate "free love" relationships between men and women, once translated into English, caused stir but inspired more radical participants in the women's movement
*--Kollontai had been the first woman ever appointed ambassador when she took up her post at the Soviet Embassy in Stockholm, Sweden

<>1927:USSR Foreign Affairs Commissar (de facto) Maksim Litvinov proposed "the complete abolition of all land, naval and air forces" to members of the League of Nations. The proposal was couched in terms that could not please League members = "armed force is a weapon in the hands of great powers for the oppression of peoples in small and colonial countries" [ORW:196-7]
*--Intuitively grasping the close similarity of "external war" (war between nation states) and "internal war" (revolution within the nation state) [ID], League members saw no sense in a disarmament that left the world-revolutionary Comintern, under Soviet leadership, still active in its support of anti-imperialist armed insurrection and thriving, to all appearances, in its exaggerated ambition to overthrow the very members of the League of Nations themselves
*--Even active members of the Comintern were beginning to stir under increasing Soviet control of the nominally "international" organization. See Helmut Gruber, ed., Soviet Russia Masters the Comintern: International Communism in the Era of Stalin's Ascendancy

<>1927mr:China, Hunan Province | Communist activist of peasant origins, Mao Tse-Tung [Zedong], published report on rural conditions, "Report of an Investigation into the Peasant Movement in Hunan" [CCS:1120-52] The Comintern now thought it could count on serious participation of Chinese revolutionary forces
*--GO my30

<>1927ap21:Italian "Corporate statism" consolidated itself by gaining dominion over the wage-labor movement with its "Charter of Labor" [DPH:393-6]
*1927my:Italian leader Mussolini addressed his puppet parliament and attacked political opposition as “silly and superficial in a totalitarian regime” [Nicholas Farrel, Mussolini: A New Life:161 | Also see 2005mr25:TLS:17]

<>1927my30:Comintern Executive Committee resolution on China [Gruber,2:490-500 | BNE:299-303]
*1927jy25:Japanese Premier Tanaka memo to Emperor on railroads and "Our New Continent" (China) [RWP1,2:113-24 | RFP2,1:191-3]
*1927au01:Stalin on China [RFP2,1:184-90]

<>1927oc:USSR "Joint Opposition", including Trotsky, expelled from Communist Party & banished

<>1927oc15:oc20; Turkey | Mustafa Kemal,6-day speech [SPE2:855-6]

<>1927de02:de19; USSR Communist Party Congress #15. End of NEP. Stalin proposed new industrialization program which became the foundation of the industrial Five-year plans for rapid economic modernization [DPH:439-]
*--Collectivization of agriculture proposed
*--Five-year plans and Collectivization were the two core ingredients of Stalinism. These two were quickly augmented by intellectual and cultural control, and purges (terror as state policy)
*--The Stalinist "cadre" political party sought managerial control over all aspects of national life [SWL:103-34]
*--Debate sharpened on the comparative virtues (and relationships) of Stalinist style command economies and capitalist economies, such as in USA. Even some who had the strongest negative views on Stalinist economics were quick to invest and do business in and with the USSR. For example, Henry Ford was a famous anti-Communists at home, but his company built vehicles in the USSR
*--Other USA businessmen became deeply involved in the Soviet economy, for example, Armand Hammer. His (auto)biography (co-written by Neil Lyndon) deals in part with his Russian/American background and experience = Hammer (1987)
*--Total managerial policies of Stalin influenced by global growth of a managerial culture in association with large trans-national corporations (see Merkle and Granick below). What began as management of workplace efficiency was becoming a widely employed technique of industrial institutional administration
\\
*--Merle Fainsod, Smolensk Under Soviet Rule focuses on captured archives relating to one western region
*--Judith A. Merkle, Management and Ideology: The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement (1980) Ch.1, Origins:7-36; and "The Taylor System in Soviet Socialism":103-135 [TXT]; on Stalinist industrialization and collectivization of agriculture [TXT]; on Henry Ford's Soviet plant [TXT]
*--David Granick, Red Executive:1-33, 266-81. Chapter titled "Managerial Class":307-16 [TXT]
*--Cyril Black, "Russian and Soviet Entrepreneurship in a Comparative Context", intro to Entrepreneurship:3-10
*--J. C. Thompson & Richard F. Vidmer, Administrative Science & Politics in the USSR and the United States: Soviet Responses to American Management Techniques, 1917-Present (1983) Chs. 1-4 (ca. 69 pp) into the Stalin period
*--Barry M. Richman, Soviet Management: With Significant American Comparisons (1965)
*--Milton Friedman with the assistance of Rose D. Friedman, Capitalism and Freedom (1962)
*--Saul G. Bron, Soviet economic development and American business; results of the first year under the five-year plan and further perspectives (New York, 1930) [ORBIS, OSU]
*--Joseph Finder, Red Carpet: The Connection between the Kremlin and America's Most Powerful Businessmen--Armand Hammer, Averell Harriman, Cyrus Eaton, David Rockefeller, Donald Kendall (1983) [ORBIS OSU]
*--Antony C. Sutton, Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution (1974)
*--Edward Jay Epstein, Dossier : the secret history of Armand Hammer (1996)
*--GO 1928my28 for more Russia/USA macro-economic comparisons, concentrating on agriculture

<>1927de27:Joseph Stalin condemned Trotskyist Opposition [SGv:160-2]

<>1928:Peruvian Marxist and member of the Comintern José Carlos Mariátegui (1895-1930) published Seven Essays Interpreting the Peruvian Reality. The second essay was "The Land Problem" [CCS,2:730-52]

<>1928ap14:USA Secretary of State Kellogg stated impossibility of USA-USSR relations so long as Comintern existed [RFP2,2:39-41]

<>1928my28:USSR | Joseph Stalin on Collectivization of agriculture [SGv:325-30] Collectivization was a component of a broad Stalinist program of economic modernization. Beginning that fall, Central Committee for five months debated about the kulaki [kulaks, "tight fists", usurers; in this case, by extension, rich farmers, peasants who had thrived in the countryside since the 1907no09:Stolypin land laws and the 1921:NEP] [Tucker,Stalin in Power:84-5]
*--Two movies illustrate some of the similarities and differences in the revolutionary Soviet and depression-era US views on the "land" and the "salt of the earth"—the agriculturists who work the land, those who produce the food =
*--USSR film—1929: "The General line", directed by Sergei Eisenstein
*--USA film—1936: "The Plow that broke the Plains", written and directed by Pare Lorentz
*--USA Library of Congress website on "Dust Bowl" culture
*1936:USA | Dorothea Lange's depression-era photo "Migrant Mother"
*--Everywhere in the 1930s, farmers had a hard time
\\
*--Rimlinger:269-80
*--N. C. Field's comparison of the agricultural land base of the USSR and North America" [TXT]
*--Jon Lauck, American agriculture and the problem of monopoly: the political economy of grain belt farming, 1953-1980 (2000) helps put Soviet collective farming into context with a later trend in the USA toward corporate farming. This study puts a question mark around several of the titles that follow below, those mid-century efforts of USA specialists who placed much emphasis on the contrast of individual, free-market farming in the USA with Soviet statist agriculture =
*--George Grantham, et al., eds., Agrarian Organization..., v1:1-24 (gnr intro) v2:USA & Russia
*--Agriculture in the United States and the Soviet Union (Several US gov. publications)
*--Lazar Volin, Agricultural Picture in U.S.S.R. and U.S.A. (1963)
*--E. G. Richards, ed., Forestry and the Forest Industries: Past and Future; Major Developments in the Forest and Forest Industry Sector Since 1947 in Europe, the USSR, and North America (1987)
*--USA Congress, Joint Economic Committee, Soviet Economy in a Time of Change (1979), see especially Douglas B. Diamond and W. Lee Davis, "Comparative Growth in Output and Productivity in U.S. and U.S.S.R. Agriculture"; and Imogene Edwards, Margaret Hughes, and James Noren, "U.S. and U.S.S.R.: Comparisons of GNP":369-401
*--Agrarnaia evoliutsiia Rossii i SShA v XIX-nachale XX veka : materialy sovetsko-amerikanskikh simpoziumov [Agrarian evolution in Russia and the United States in the XIX--early XX century] (1991). Table of contents also in English
*--GO 1964:USA for more Russia/USA macro-economic comparison

<>1928jy:USSR | Conclusion of Shakhty [Mines, Miners] Trial, early Stalinist purge trial

<>1928jy:USSR | Sixth World Congress of the Communist International [RFP2,2:192-8]. USSR asserted its dominion over the members of supposedly international Comintern [ORW:199-200]
*1928:1929; US Communist Party, a product of earlier home-grown radical traditions, now fell under the dominance of the Comintern. By this time, Jay Lovestone was the leading figure in CLP, but he became entangled in Stalin’s struggle against Nikolai Bukharin. Oddly, the US movement vibrated in response to Soviet Communist Party internal struggles rather than in response to political and economic conditions in the USA. Comintern leadership and policy were at a crossroads. Bukharin was forced out, but Lovestone would not denounce him. Under Lovestone’s leadership US Communist Party dissenters tried to resist Stalinist manipulation of the Comintern
*1928de:1929sp; Bertram Wolfe traveled to Moscow in an effort to restore harmony, but he found the Soviet Party set on taking over the USA Party by undermining its elected leadership
*1929my06:my14; Moscow | Stalin delivered three speeches on the US situation in which he conceded that US capitalism showed certain specific features, but that it was quite wrong to presume that these warranted different Marxist analysis or Party program in USA. CPA leaders “exaggerate the significance of the specific features of American capitalism and thereby overlook the basic features of world capitalism as a whole”. In other words, CPA should not seek to form policy based on US specifics but rather on global universals, as defined at global headquarters = the Comintern
*--Perhaps Stalin’s most salient point was this = CPA had no one to back them up, CPA by now had no “constituency”, no authentic comradely association with US workers. Constituent relationships with the working people were not characteristic of the parties close to the center of the Comintern. CPA was asked to bear in mind that it had only one important “comrade”, and that was Stalin. He was not to be defied
*--After Stalin’s my14 speech, many of the CPA leaders capitulated. However, when Stalin left the meeting at which he defeated the US leadership, he stopped to extend a hand of greeting to Edward Welsh, a black delegate in the US group. Welsh turned from Stalin to the defeated Lovestone next to him and asked, “What the hell does this guy want?” Welsh did not shake Stalin’s hand
*1929je:Lovestone was expelled from the Comintern, and so was Wolfe when he refused to support the Comintern decision against Lovestone. The USA Party, earlier in a majority behind the dissenter Lovestone, now went along with the decision handed down from Moscow, and this on the eve of the US stock-market collapse
\\
*-- Theodore Draper, American Communism and Soviet Russia: The Formative Period (1960)
*--The Soviet World of American Communism

<>1928au27:Kellogg-Briand Pact | Germany, USA, France, England, Italy, Japan, plus Belgium, Czechoslovakia and Poland solemnly declared "that they condemn recourse to war for the solution of international controversies, and renounce it as an instrument of national policy in their relations with one another" [DPH:468-9]
*1922fe06:1936de31; Fourteen years of negotiations between USA, France, England, Italy and Japan, in an effort to limit naval armament, lay behind the landmark Kellogg-Briand Pact [RWP1,3:230-7] USA isolationism began to crumble, but was it too little, too late?
*--The Pact affirmed good sentiments, and was eventually signed by 65 nation-states. But the Pact provided for no enforcement mechanisms and thus reflected a general structural fault in the design of the League of Nations

<>1928se:Scotland | Achnacarry Agreement created global petroleum cartels
*--International Petroleum Cartel (WDC:Gvt. Printing Office,1952)

<>1928oc:1932de; USSR First Five-year Plan lasted four years and became the economic cornerstone of Stalinism
\\
*--Paul R. Gregory, The Political Economy of Stalinism: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives

<>1928de09:Italian Fascist state strengthened by its absorption of the Grand Council of Fascism (something like the fascist party executive). The corporate state was absorbing the Fascist Party [DPH:396-7]
*1928, Mussolini published his autobiography. The English translation sported a forward by Richard Washburn Child, who had witnessed the rise of Italian corporate statism as Ambassador to Italy from USA. Child was an early supporter of Theodore Roosevelt and his "Bull Moose" party of US progressives. Now Child scoffed at the "so-called liberals" who criticized Fascism. Child extolled the mystic power of the Italian leader and compared his personal magnetism to that of Teddy Roosevelt. "Admire him or not, approve his philosophies or not, concede the permanence of his success or not, consider him superman or not, as you may, he has put to a working test, on great and growing numbers of mankind, programs, unknown before, in applied spirituality, in applied plans, in applied leadership, in applied doctrines, in the applied principle that contents are more important than labels on bottles. He has not only been able to secure and hold an almost universal following; he has built a new state upon a new concept of a state. He has not only been able to change the lives of human beings but he has changed their minds, their hearts, their spirits." [xi]
\\
*--Thomas J. DiLorenzo, Professor of Economics at Loyola University and Senior fellow at the Ludwig von Mises Institute, explored the broader 20th-century implications of "corporatism" in his article "Economic Fascism"

<>1929:English novelist Virginia Woolf published personal declaration of independence, requiring only, as her title put it, A Room of One's Own [TXT] [CWC:386-98]. Yes, a room of one's own, but also, as her text added, a steady income of 500 British Pounds a year. A feminist manifesto by a representative of the English social, economic and cultural elite, one of the great novelists of the 20th century, was also a plea for economic independence. Economic pressures caused by the commercialization of the fine arts and the rise of pop-arts was felt in Woolf's circles. Her manifesto had long-term influence, and not only on women's movements

<>1929:German writer Erich Maria Remarque published powerful novel about WW1, All Quiet on the Western Front
*--German sociologist (Hungarian-born) Karl Mannheim published pioneer work in the "sociology of knowledge", Ideology and Utopia [CCS:329-56]

<>1929:Spanish philosopher Ortega y Gasset, Revolt of the Masses [TXT] [TXT] [Excerpts = (W) | (W) | CCS:485-506 | CCS,2:508-29 | BMC4:659-61] Critical of mass culture [of which pop-arts were but a superficial expression] and suspicious of undisciplined democracy, he was nonetheless a liberal who fought against old regime Spain and helped establish a brief republican epoch before defeat in the Spanish Civil War brought militarist, right-wing movement of Franco to power
\\
*--[W]
*--A praiseful contemporary "right-wing" critique of Ortega's central ideas (with long quotes) [W]

<>1929fe09:USSR | Joseph Stalin on Nikolai Bukharin and the Right Deviation [SGv:163-6]
*1929:1931; Documents of Soviet History, v5 [DSH,5]

<>1929fe11:Italian Fascist state signed concordat with Pope [DPH:398-9]

<>1929ap08:USSR | Status of Religious Groups Defined [SGv:63-70]
*--Changes over the following half century documented = [PS&C:298-304]

<>1929oc29:USA | New York Times reported "Stock Prices Slump", marking the beginning of the US phase of the temporary global collapse of the capitalist economy. "The Great Depression" was already a decade old in central Europe and only now swept over USA isolationism
*--Andrew Mellon served as Secretary of the Treasury (1921-1932) during administrations of Harding, Coolidge and Hoover. He was described by his son Paul as “a thin-voiced, thin-bodied, shy and uncommunicative man” driven by a narrow acquisitive ethic and esthetic. He seemed a man of much wealth and very little personality. However, he established a fabulous personal art collection and used it to found the great National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC
*--Mellon averred that the only role of government in a free economy was to cut taxes and balance its budget. Nonetheless, Mellon continued from his high position of national governmental responsibility and trust to tend daily to the business of his own remarkably successful “laissez-faire” enterprises. He claimed to have withdrawn from his own companies “as if I had died”, but that was a lie. He had no sense of contradiction or conflict of interests. As the depression set in, he claimed that people needed simply to work harder and “lead a more moral life”. His financial elitist and anti-wage-labor views, and his harsh, impractical ideas about the national economic crisis were so offensive that President Hoover found it necessary to reassign Mellon as ambassador to England
*--The most famous pop-art song about the depression, "Brother Can You Spare a Dime" [TXT#1 and #2], was written in 1931 by two Russian Jewish émigrés in America, Yip Harburg (lyrics) and Gorney Harburg (music).
\\
*--Rimlinger:193-200 [TXT]

<>1929no:USSR | Nikolai Bukharin dismissed from Politbiuro; "right opposition" defeated

<>1929de21:USSR | Fiftieth birthday of Joseph Stalin

<>1929de27:USSR Collectivization of agriculture intensified as Stalin delivered speech which called for "the liquidation of the kulaks as a class" and "the eradication of the distinction between city and countryside" [SGv:330-1 | DPH:440-1 | PWT2:306-7]
*--The next few months witnessed forced collectivization of about half the USSR rural population, a bitter struggle, eventually with tragic result that millions died in the Soviet countryside, particularly in Ukraine
*1929:1932; Letters and other testimony from rural laboring folks [SWL:28-77]
*--Party activist and later dissenter Lev Kopelev recalled long after the events his own participation in the Terror in the Countryside [P20:121 | PWT2:307-10]
*--Miron Dolot much later recalled his experience of the Famine in the Ukraine [P20:124]
*--From the time of Collectivization, Soviet Union expanded programs of removal and concentration of designated individuals and groups, lodging them in an expanded system of Government Administered Camps [GULag]
*--Oleg Khlevniuk, The History of the GUlag: from Collectivization to the Great Terror

<>1930:Austrian psychologist Sigmund Freud published Civilization and its Discontents  (Das Unbehagen in der Kultur) [Summarized TXT w/quotes | Excerpts = CCS:623-40 | CCS,1:365-82 | PWT2:242-7 (includes other excerpts) | BMC1:617-20]
*--Freud was then at the height of his career, but he had been moving in recent years beyond the "science" of psychoanalysis into huge issues of cultural analysis and criticism =
*1927:The Future of an Illusion (Die Zukunft einer Illusion), a serious critique of religion as an illusion [BMC4:661-3]
*1939:Moses and Monotheism (Der Mann Moses und die monotheistische Religion)

<>1930:German journalist and Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg wrote the influential Der Mythus des 20. Jahrhunderts [The Myth of the Twentieth Century] [BMC1:651-3 | BMC4:749-51]

<>1930ja05:USSR | Collectivization of agriculture accelerated [SGv:331-2]
*--GO 1930mr

<>1930mr:Stalin signaled crisis in the implementation of Collectivization with his deceptively titled speech "Dizzy with Success" [SGv:332-3]

<>1930mr:USSR Menshevik Party trial

<>1930mr20:Italian labor law, reforming the National Council of Corporations, further strengthened Fascist statism [DPH:399-401]

<>1930mr28:German Socialist Party [SPD] addressed an Executive Appeal to the German working people. The SPD was a central component of the several coalition governments that tried to rule under the Weimar Constitution. In this appeal it defended its social welfare program against the attacks of a strong right-wing party, Deutsche Volkspartei [German People's Party] [DPH:418-19]
*--More social-democratic and right-wing parties

<>1930my21:India | Followers of Gandhi marched on salt deposits at Dharsana to protest English arrest of their leader, as described by Webb Miller [Eye:501-4]
*1931no30:Gandhi [pix] addressed Second Plenary Meeting of the Second Session of the Round Table Conference. He spoke boldly for the whole of India and insisted upon complete freedom and independence from England. He saw India guided by the political party, the Indian National Congress (founded in the 1880s) [BNE:303-6] Gandhi visited the English Prime Minister at 10 Downing Street [pix]
*1933:1972; Afghanistan ruled for nearly 40 years by "king" Mohammad Zahir Shah. Pressed between colonial India and Iran (and eventually Pakistan), and at the strategic southern limit of Russian imperial expansion, Afghanistan was an artificial border drawn by great-power rivalry, and within it Uzbek, Pashtun (Pakistany) and Iranian peoples lived. Yet it found its way through the next four decades. 1946:Kabul University founded. 1964:"liberal" constitution limited monarchical power. The 40 years of the Shah was a time of moderate self-administered "modernization" without thorough uprooting of traditional ways. Afghanistan might have become a model of independent, non-European modernization if the great powers had not once again decided to focus their rivalries on it

<>1930se:USA ex-Socialist John Spargo argued for recognition of USSR [RFP2,2:49-58]

<>1930oc09:1940je26; USSR | Stalinist decade of labor laws (prior to WW2) [SGv:425-32]
*1932au10:Nizhnii Novgorod penal labor colony [GULag] described in official report [SWL:88-93 | see also other documents and narrative discussion:94-102] [W] [W]
*--Women's memoirs of the GULag, edited by Simeon Vilensky, Till My Tale is Told
*1930oc25:oc26; Georgian Society of Marxist Theorists of State met, followed soon by =
*1931ja07:ja14; Moscow meeting of the First All-Union Congress of Marxist Legal Theorists [Jaworskyj:281-90]

<>1930oc18:German Social-Democratic [SD] deputies in the Reichstag declared their unwillingness to cooperate with either the National Socialists [Nazis] or Communists [supporters of the Soviet programs designed within the Comintern]. Surrounded on the right and on the left, German SDs predicted victory for the Nazis, but insisted that Social Democracy and free trade unions were a bastion against Fascism in Germany. "The whole working class must support the parliamentary struggle of the Social-Democratic deputies...with all its power" [DPH:419-20]

<>1930no:USSR "Industrial Party" trial under way

<>1931:Austrian (born in Czech region) mathematician Kurt Gődel (sometimes "Goedel" and incorrectly as "Godel") (1906-1978) published his Incompleteness Theorems in Uber formal unentscheidbare Sätze der Principia Mathematica und verwandter Systeme
*--The Goedel Society website explains that Goedel "proved fundamental results about axiomatic systems showing in any axiomatic mathematical system there are propositions that cannot be proved or disproved within the axioms of the system. In particular the consistency of the axioms cannot be proved. This ended a hundred years of attempts to establish axioms to put the whole of mathematics on an axiomatic basis".
\\
*--[W]
*--Morris Kline, Mathematics: The Loss of Certainty (1981)

<>1931:German author of world fame, Thomas Mann, tried to put rise of Nazism in broadest cultural and historical framework in a article titled "An Appeal to Reason" in which he reflected that Europe was in "a crisis which heralded the end of the bourgeois epoch that came in with the French revolution and the notions appertaining to it. A new mental attitude was proclaimed for all mankind, an attitude that has nothing to do with bourgeois principles such as freedom, justice, culture, optimism, faith in progress. As art, it gave vent to expressionistic soul-shrieks; as philosophy it repudiated ... reason, and the ... ideological conceptions of bygone decades; it expressed itself as an irrationalistic throwback, placing the conception life at the center of thought, and raised on its standard the powers of the unconscious, the dynamic, the darkly creative, which alone were life-giving." [P20:169 | PWT2:351-2]
*--Late this same year in Germany, Arthur Koestler joined the Communist Party and remained a member into the year 1938. Later he explained the circumstances that attracted him to the Communist Party [PWT2:352-4]

<>1931:Berlin, Rome and Moscow were the only places where the 100th anniversary of Hegel's death was celebrated. Hegel might not have approved of  Hitler, Mussolini or Stalin, but they all had reasons to approve of him. How are philosophy and totalitarianism linked in this episode?
*--In this same year, as the Nazi movement grew in strength, Free Corps spokesman Ernst von Salomon described the atmosphere of post-war life = Brutalization of the Individual [P20:86 | PWT2:286-7]

<>1931:USSR | Stalin delivered speech (1931fe05:Pravda) in which he said, "One feature of the history of old Russia was the continual beatings she suffered for falling behind, for her backwardness. She was beaten by the Mongol Khans [ID]. She was beaten by the Turkish beys [ID]. She was beaten by the Swedish feudal lords [ID]. She was beaten by the Polish and Lithuanian gentry [ID]. She was beaten by the French [ID] and British capitalists [ID]. She was beaten by the Japanese barons [ID]. All beat her--for backwardness, for military backwardness, for cultural backwardness, for political backwardness, for her industrial backwardness, for agricultural backwardness. She was beaten because to beat her was profitable and went unpunished.... In the past we [Soviet working peoples] had no fatherland and could have none. Now, however, that we have overthrown capitalism and the workers wield power in our country, we have a fatherland and shall defend its independence. Do you want our Socialist fatherland to be beaten and to lose its independence? If you do not want that, then you must abolish its backwardness and develop a really Bolshevik pace in the establishment of its Socialist economy.... We are fifty or a hundred years behind the advanced countries. We must make good this lag in ten years. Either we accomplish this or we will be crushed." [The hyperlinks are to plausible historical events behind  Stalinist fear of defeat at the hands of foreign armies. Commentators have taken note of the fact that ten years after this speech, USSR was invaded by Hitler Germany] [BNE:248-55]

<>1931my31:Pope Pius XI issued Quadragesimo Anno [TXT], referring to the 40th anniversary of Rerum Novarum and bringing the message into line with the authoritarian and anti-secular temper of the depression era [BPE:669-99]
*1937mr14:Pius XI, Mit brennender Sorge [TXT], criticized Nazi anticlericalism and paganism, then =
*1937mr19:Restated anti-communism, Divini Redemptoris [TXT] [BPE:585-604]

<>1931se18:Manchuria invaded by Japan
*--By 1932ja:Japan declared puppet Manchukuo state there
*1932se:League of Nations Commission head, English Lord Lytton, delegated to study situation [BNE:268-70]
*1933fe24:League tried to intervene, but failed [DPH:469-72]
*--Japan  withdrew from the League of Nations and waged war against China for 14 years, until 1945

<>1932:1933; Ukraine experienced collectivization of agriculture and famine, statistically the most murderous dimension of Stalinism [93je18:MNe#25:15]
*1932:1934; Documents of Soviet History, v6 [DSH,6]

<>1932:English writer Aldous Huxley (1894-1963) published Brave New World, a nightmare vision of a totally managed -- a "scientifically" managed -- culture, government, and society. This famous anti-utopian novel was provoked less by this or that monstrous ideology of the inter-war years than by a much more ubiquitous industrial modernization and the erosion of old-fashioned European values. Huxley felt that advanced technologies and pop-art culture were displacing traditional European humanist civilization. He felt a vast cultural disenchantment with 20th-century mass society, in certain ways like that perceived by Weber [ID] and, to some degree, Zamiatin [ID] and Ortega y Gassett [ID]

<>1932:German/Swiss novelist Herman Hesse published Morgenland Fahrt [Journey to the east] and concentrated on completing Glasperlenspiel [The Glass Bead Game or Magister Ludi], not published until 1943. Both works reflected a desperate search for cultural identity in a dispirited or disenchanted era
*--German physicist Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976) won Nobel Prize, largely for his role over the previous five years in the elaboration of the Principle of Indeterminacy or Uncertainty in the new quantum physics
*1931:English scientific theorist Herbert Dingle endeavored to explain the wider meaning of relativity and quantum theory in the new physics [CCC2,2:1042-60] In the same year his fellow countryman John Scott Haldane (1860-1936) lamented that "the attempt to place biology on a physico-chemical basis has been far from encouraging" [BMC1:596-8]
*1955:Heisenberg himself endeavored to compare medieval and modern ideas of nature, and to explain quantum physics, in his Das Naturbild der heutigen Physik [translated as "The Physicist's Conception of Nature"] [BMC4:704-8]
*--Heisenberg's versatility is suggested in this original German-language "Diskussionen über die Sprache" [TXT].
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*--[W#1] [W#2] [W#3] [W#4] [W#5]

<>1932:Italian Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, "The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism" [TXT]
[Excerpts = BNE:261-4 | CWC:219-33 | CCC2,2:1147-60 | BMC1:646-9 | BMC4:744-7]
*--More Fascism

<>1932:Swiss child psychologist Jean Piaget published The Moral Judgment of the Child [CCS,1:455-79] in which he continued to expand psychology beyond its main fixation on sexuality and the study of psychic pathology. He sought to illuminate how in general the human brain works, especially how adult consciousness grows from earliest childhood

<>1932:USA Protestant theologian Reinhold Niebuhr argued in his Moral Man and Immoral Society for democracy using the concept of "original sin" to justify checks and balances and the concept of choice to justify hope for human progress [CCS:552-70 | CCS,2:839-57]
*--Niebuhr began his ministerial career in Detroit where he sided regularly with autoworker unions in their conflicts with management. Eventually a famous "liberal" in public life, Niebuhr was equally famous as a conservative theologian who adhered to the "Pauline Doctrine" and insisted on the inherent sinfulness of humanity. He rejected the popular "social gospel" found in suburban churches of his day, with its casual, maybe even smug, neglect of "original sin". His strong support of institutional restraint ("checks and balances") in political life and justice in social and economic life, thus to minimize the constant threat posed by humanity's wayward ways, harmonized his secular liberalism with his Christian conservatism. His writings influenced many "New Deal" liberals [EG]. In this ideologically intense epoch, Niebuhr also encouraged the more practical-minded, less righteous and "ideological" theorists of international relations [EG]
*1933:English historian Christopher Dawson published Enquiries into Religion and Culture, in which he described the failure of secularization [P20:211]

<>1932:USA social/economic theorists close to FDR’s New Deal administration, Adolf Berle, Jr. (1895-1971), and Gardiner Means published The Modern Corporation and Private Property [CCS:729-53 | CCS,2:222-46] This "became the most acclaimed book of the depression decade, if not of the first half of the twentieth century". It was "a manifesto for augmenting a system of private planning with a system of public planning". These were the central ideas: The corporation "transferred control over property from the owner (the stockholder) to management". Berle saw in this the danger of near constant violation of the very foundation of laissez faire market economics, fiduciary trust [those who accept responsibility for the management of resources belonging to others cannot work to make this benefit themselves]. This subtle point became a matter of great public interest when Berle showed what a huge part of USA national wealth was concentrated in a few managers' hands (e.g., Andrew Mellon) [Jordan Schwarz, Liberal, p. viii]
*--The famous liberal "public intellectual" Walter Lippmann explained why a free but democratic USA had to guarantee minimal prosperity under 20th-century conditions of hyper-industrial productivity [Rimlinger provides 2 paragraphs of TXT]
*--Popular self-organization and self-help groups, emphasized one hundred years earlier in Tocqueville's famous study of USA [ID], now were much weaker, though they still played a role, for example in the Townsend Movement [Rimlinger provides 5 paragraphs of TXT]
*--In this way, the New Deal may be thought of as a renewal of the "Progressive Era" under conditions of economic collapse and under the shadow of the managerial revolution in corporate administration
*--The historical irony here may be that "The West" experienced a crisis-ridden 1930s in which an intense assault on the nearly two-century tradition of market economics came from two very different directions =
(1) large business enterprises themselves and
(2) totalitarian statism
*--Some opponents of the US "New Deal", accused it of siding with the first, and some of siding with the second [EG]. Berle and other "New Dealers" sought to tip-toe between these two threats and to bring the USA out of economic collapse
*--Berle kept a meticulous record of his active life, which included serving as "Russian expert" with President Wilson's delegation to the Versailles conferences, published as Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971 (1973)

<>1932ja:Soviet journal Kul'tura i byt [Culture and Everyday life] became the organ of "Obshchestvo bor'by s alkogolizmom" [Society for the struggle with alcoholism] and absorbed the journal Kul'turnaia revoliutsiia [Cultural Revolution]
*--Lenin’s and Stalin’s styles of struggle for revolutionary culture were illustrated in this transition from Lenin's call for more culture & retreat from revolutionary extremes of War Communism, from that to Stalin’s struggle against alcoholism; from Beethoven for the proletariat to no booze -- from literary dreams to Socialist Realism

<>1932fe:League of Nations Disarmament Conference convened. Representatives of USA and USSR participated. The goal was to define means to limit and control expenditures by nation-states for military weaponry and to reduce numbers in uniform. France rejected the draft treaty that came out of these meetings. Germany suggested that all nation-states should reduce their military to the levels imposed on Germany at Versailles, a powerful idea but one accompanied by an unsettling threat = Accept this German plan or Germany would rearm
*1933mr:As the German Nazi Party ascended to power (via elections), the Disarmament Conference adjourned. Disarmament was perhaps the most significant initiative of the League of Nations, and it clearly was in jeopardy from the very beginning

<>1932mr:Leon Trotsky journal Bulletin of the Opposition (Bolshevik Leninists) contained powerful letter

<>1932jy30:German physicist Albert Einstein wrote a letter to the Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud in which he explored the question of why humans go to war
*1932se:Freud replied [the two letters in RWP1,2:21-35 and RWP2:19-32]
*--Freud had already over the previous third of a century made his great contributions to psychoanalytic theory
*--Freud was soon forced to flee from the spread of Nazism in Austria. He emigrated to England, where he died in 1939
*--His intellectual influence was great from 1900 up to a point of rather precipitous decline at the end of the 20th century when his psychological views came under wide and severe criticism

<>1932au21:USSR | Riutin's "Appeal" [Tucker,Stalin in Power:211-12]

<>1932oc27:London | Hunger marchers converged on House of Commons, as described by Wal Hannington [Eye:504-5]
*--In this same year, German writer Heinrich Hauser described his experience among Germany's unemployed [P20:160 | PWT2:336-9]
*1930:Austrian social scientist reported on impact of depression on everyday life in the small industrial town Marienthal [CWC:446-63]
*--English governmental figure and academic economist, active in the design of modern welfare policies in the first half of the 20th century, William Henry Beveridge, assessed the economic collapse in the Great Depression [CCC2,2:1129-43]
*1942de06:Ten years later, during WW2, Beveridge put up a strong defense of social insurance [CWC:503-15]

<>1932no09:Joseph Stalin's wife Nadia killed herself

<>1932de27:USSR | Internal Passport Re-established [SGv:74-7 | PS&C:164-6]

<>1933:1937; USSR Second Five-year Plan lasted four years


1932 New Years postcard created by N. I. Dormidontov
depicting "Moscow-Narva House of Culture" in Leningrad
[SOURCE]

<>1933:USSR Foreign Commissar Maksim Litvinov proposed definition of "aggression" to League of Nations. League members were but little interested in the Soviet proposal, even though it might be said to have defined international revolutionary activities as aggression, as well as the traditional military actions of "states" = Litvinov's proposal stipulated that aggression cannot be justified by "the alleged absence of certain attributes of state organization" in the country attacked, or by "the establishment or maintenance in any state of any political, economic or social order". Clearly Litvinov aimed to restrict threats to the USSR and not to restrict actions of the Comintern [ORW:198-9]
*--Nonetheless, these formulas carried the seeds of the notion of "peaceful co-existence" and might have restrained both the new nation-state militarism of the time, as well as the actions of the Comintern. The world, however, was spiraling in directions not likely to be altered by this or any other "definition of aggression"

<>1933ja:1941; USA President Franklin D. Roosevelt [FDR] & "New Deal" in eight pre-WW2 years introduced a dramatic series of emergency measures to combat the devastating consequences of the Great Depression and, then in a steadier sequence of legislative acts, to restore and rebalance the US market economy
*--English economist John Maynard Keynes was the most influential spokesperson for New Deal style Anglo-American  social democracy
*--In the first two years of FDR's administration, this and other powerful measures were taken =
*1933mr09:Emergency Banking Act
*1933mr12:Agricultural Adjustment Act (1936:US Supreme Court declared AAA unconstitutional)
*1933mr31:Civilian Conservation Corps Reforestation Relief Act established work camps for 250,000 young men who were compensated with room and board plus $30/mo salary. The CCC was much expanded with time
*1933my12:Federal Emergency Relief Administration [FERA] created with wide discretionary authority and headed up by FDR's most trusted administrative lieutenant, Harry Hopkins. A $500 million budget was devoted to state-administered rations of food and other commodities for those in desperate need. It's programs reached all the way to Alaska Territory
*1933my18:Tennessee Valley Authority Act [TVA] (which, like the next three on this list, issued from Congress rather than from the White House)
*1933my27:Federal Securities Act
*1933je06:National Employment Service Act, designed to facilitate bringing those who needed labor together with those who needed to work
*1933je12:Home Owners Refinancing Act allocated $2.2 billion to refinance about one million mortgages on private homes
*1933je16:Glass-Steagall Act which created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation [FDIC]. Bank failures were drastically curtailed
*1933je16:National Industrial Recovery Act, the act of broadest significance, creating the "National Recovery Administration" [NRA]. (1935:US Supreme Court declared NRA unconstitutional)
*1933je16:Emergency Railroad Transportation Act which sought to ramp up railroad regulation, building on the original and continuing close ties between government and enterprise in this branch of the industrial economy
*1935:Social Security Act [ID] [TXT]
*1935:1939; Works Progress Administration, later called Work Projects Administration. Headed by Harry Hopkins, the WPA lasted de jure until 1943, but anti-New Deal Congressional opposition (fearing the spread of "socialism") reduced its operations to nearly nothing in 1939. Before its abolition, WPA expended $11 billion to employ 8,500,000 otherwise unemployed in useful public projects. All across the land, WPA constructing 116,000 buildings, 78,000 bridges, 651,000 miles of hard-surface road, and 800 modernized airports. WPA also administered a Federal Art Project (creating 10,000 works of art, most notably decorative murals in public buildings), Federal Writers' Project (which produced a remarkable series of guidebooks, state by state), and a Federal Theatre Project (sponsoring an estimated 4,000 performances a month during the depression years) [Knight Library Holdings]
*1935:"Wagner Act" & National Labor Relations Board [NLRB] built on the principle that membership or non-membership in a labor union cannot be a condition of employment. This principle was first articulated in the act creating the NRA. Labor unions, which had been considered something close to illegal political conspiracy in the USA since the great Homestead Strike [ID], were now recognized.
*--USA was the last of the "Western" nations to adopt modern welfare legislation. It lagged behind Russia, imperial and Soviet. English and USA tardiness in part influenced by "Social Darwinism" [ID], in part by an obdurate US reluctance to vouchsafe a place for wage-labor interests and organizations in the emerging modern industrialized political economy. GO 1947:USA Taft-Hartley
*1935my27:USA Supreme Court, however, declared the New Deal "National Industrial Recovery Act" (a key element of the NRA plan) unconstitutional. Still, the New Deal moved ahead in its struggle against economic collapse
*--FDR redefined US liberalism, adding a large dose of what in Europe might be called social democracy. However, some called it by other names which variously implied managerial bureaucratic statism ("planned economy"; in this case the planning was by a nationally elected government rather than self-administered corporate boards or industrial CEOs) [Howard Zinn, ed., New Deal Thought]
*--Ex-Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon remained until his death in 1937 a bitter critic of FDR’s “socialistic” New Deal. The Roosevelt Administration began to pull the US capitalist economy out of the swamp into which it had driven itself in the years of Mellon’s service as Secretary of the Treasury. Many whose chestnuts were thus pulled from the fire nurtured until their deaths an angry and thankless hatred for the progressivism of the New Deal. Those who thought this way felt it was sufficient condemnation of the "New Deal" to equate it with the European (could we say "Western") social-democratic tradition
*--Building on an inherited family fortune, Mellon individually achieved a vigorous and astonishing half-century-plus business and public service career
\\
*--Rimlinger on Roosevelt's background [TXT]; on the depression era  [TXT]
*--LBH,3:380-7

<>1933ja11:USSR Machine Tractor Stations nationalized and centrally administered large farm implements. Agriculture mechanized or industrialized as agricultural collectivization advanced [SGv:334-6]

<>1933fe22:Germany, Berlin | D. Sefton Delmer described Hitler's reaction to the burning of the Reichstag [Eye:507-9]. From the beginning, the Nazis counted on its being the work of communists. Thus they sought to exploit public concern over a terrorist act in order to rouse the electorate to vote for their right-wing party. It appears now to have been a Nazi setup, and it worked

<>1933fe28:Nazis persuaded ineffective President Hindenburg to issue an ordinance "for the protection of the people and state", on the basis of which Hitler was able to attack all political opposition to his party in upcoming elections [DPH:420-1]

<>1933mr05:1945ap30; Adolf Hitler elected head of German State, the beginning of 12-year "Thousand Year Reich" in Nazi Germany
*--Ended with Hitler’s suicide and, two days later, the surrender of Berlin to the Soviet Red Army and the end of WW2 in Europe
*--But over the next dozen years, Hitler reshaped European history

<>1933mr07:Austrian Premier Engelbert Dollfuss (Christian Socialist Party) suspended parliamentary government, ousting Social Democrats. He sought support from Fascist Italy, but he nonetheless tried to keep native-born Austrian Nazi Party activists at arms length. Dollfuss assumed dictatorial power

<>1933mr24:German "Weimar Constitution" suspended in emergency "enabling law" which gave Hitler unchecked authority "to relieve the distress of the people and the Reich". Only the SDs voted against this measure. Liberalism appeared politically inert. Other laws followed in quick succession over the next few months in which Hitler carried out his "revolution after power", establishing a dictatorship for himself and his Nazi Party [DPH:421-4]

<>1933ap:USSR Metro-Vickers Trial

<>1933ap16:USSR | Sholokhov letter to Joseph Stalin re. excesses of Collectivization [Tucker, Stalin in Power:194]
*--Stalinist policy in this epoch has reminded some commentators of English policy in the early industrial era. Stalin's "primitive accumulation of capital" meant heartless squeezing of the domestic population of the northern Eurasian continent, all in a very brief historical period, about one decade. It meant a hurried transfer of the economic resources of Russian and all other people under direct Soviet rule, and especially traditional rural populations. These resources were gathered into the hands of Party bureaucratic and managerial elites for purposes of investment in Soviet industrial development, and the comfort of the gathering elite. English "primitive accumulation" was much slower and came from two sources. First, common agricultural lands under traditional village authority were "inclosed" (or "enclosed") by landowning elites. This meant the expropriation and concentration of economic resources into the hands of a privileged aristocracy and crown administration for their own comfort and expanded opportunities through investment in the dynamic new global market economy. Thus the second source of English "primitive accumulation of capital" = exploitation of overseas imperial domains
*--Collectivization disrupted and transformed forever the Russian rural landscape. The destruction of traditional village ways and the introduction of modern, urban, mechanized means of production has been variously painful everywhere it has happened, whether managed by entrepreneurial aristocrats, Commissars or corporate executives. In contrast to other moments in the history of the European "agricultural revolution" in preparation for industrialization, Soviet Collectivization was an intense and purposeful telescoping of the misery and dislocation into a brief historical moment --  mostly in the first five years of agricultural collectivization between 1927 and 1933 -- in which levels of suffering and loss were staggering, even when judged by the standards of the statist-managerial 20th century, in fact, they were nearly unprecedented in the history of domestic governmental policy

<>1933ap26:English ambassador to Germany Horace Rumbold sent to London a clear description of what Hitler and his Nazi Party meant, "Pacifism Is the Deadliest of Sins" [BNE:270-3]

<>1933ap28:USSR Central Committee directive re. Communist Party purge [Tucker, Stalin in Power:221-2 | SGv:167-70]
*--A political culture of denunciation crept into the everyday life of the Soviet citizen [SWL:154-7; 207-81]
*--Over next five years, Stalinist purges also eradicated leading Bolsheviks and other Communist Party members [ORW:208-10]

<>1933my10:German university students burned books which the Nazis identified as objectionable. In Berlin, the local Associated Press bureau chief Louis P. Lochner observed and reported on book burning [P20:177]

<>1933je:USA consul general at Berlin George S. Messersmith reported, "The Nazis were after...unlimited territorial expansion" [P20:218]

<>1933se01:Germany | Nuremberg Nazi Party rally, became an annual event of high theatre
*--Leni Riefenstahl Produktion, Triumph of the Will [80 min. videorecording] Direction and artistic organization, Leni Riefenstahl ; camera director, Sepp Allgeier ; musical composition, Robert Windt. Original German language version with English subtitles Videocassette release of the 1934 motion picture Winner of Germany's National Film Prize ; awarded first place at The Paris International Exhibition. Parental discretion advised. A film commissioned by Adolph Hitler as the official record of the Nuremberg Party Rally of 1934. Produced as an important piece of political propaganda to introduce the new German leaders to the nation and to impress foreign audiences
*1937:German supporter of Hitler who later broke with him, Kurt G.W. Ludecke, described The Demagogic Orator [P20:168]
*--USA medical doctor Alice Hamilton visited Germany and reported what she saw with precision and vitality = "To understand Hitler's enormous success with the young we must understand what life has meant to the post-war generation in Germany, not only the children of the poor but of the middle class as well. They were children during the years of the war when the food blockade kept them half starved, when fathers were away at the front and mothers distracted with the effort to keep their families fed. They came to manhood in a country which seemed to have no use for them" [P20:172 | PWT2:342-4]
*--GO oc14

<>1933se02:Winnipeg Free Press. An article by Frank H. Williams on conditions in western Canada during the Depression = "How families in stricken prairie areas have managed to live during these trying times. Those too proud to accept relief have exhibited considerable ingenuity in devising ways and means of augmenting the family income. For one thing the old spinning wheel has come back into use again. In a small Manitoba town a blacksmith took advantage of this sudden demand for spinning wheels to revamp his shop into a spinning wheel factory and business boomed so quickly he had to take on additional help. In the Edenwold district, east of Regina, one family with butter and eggs to sell debated whether it was worth while to spend the money for gasoline to take their produce to Regina. They solved the problem by filling the old Model T Ford with cut firewood and the sale value of the wood paid the expenses of the trip. Another farmer near Rouleau, Sask., despaired of selling his hogs in the ordinary way for the price was at rock bottom. He conceived the idea of manufacturing the entire hog into sausage and the word spread that his sausage was good, so he was forced to go out and buy the hogs of his neighbors. The spinning industry was revived because the price of wool was so low as to make it unprofitable to sell. The government instructors quickly adapted their training to the changed conditions and showed the farm women how to make blankets out of the raw wool. Unable to buy new cars and by the same token unable to buy gasoline for the old car, or even to buy a buggy, the farmers have taken the engines out of their old Model T Fords, hitched a tongue and whiffle-trees to the front axle and called it a "Bennett" buggy. Others have put a seat on the front wheels of a Model T and have christened this an "Anderson" cart. Probably Premiers Bennett and Anderson will not feel flattered at the use of their names in this connection, but it is a reflection of the spirit of the times.... One item of expense the farmer has eliminated is that of flour. With thousands of bushels in his granaries that the market price doomed to remain there, the farmer took five or ten bushels to the small grist mill for his own flour. If he had no money to pay for the milling he left the bran and shorts with the miller in payment. The average farm family has limited its purchases to sugar and tea, for which no substitutes can be found on the land. A few dozen eggs or a few pounds of butter can take care of these requirements. Some enterprising businessmen, such as local theatre and skating rink managers offered to take wheat and barley as payment for admission prices. They tell the story of a Manitoba farmer who met two acquaintances outside a beer parlor. "Lets go in for a beer," he suggested. The three quaffed their bottles of beer and when the host arose to go he turned to the hotel-keeper. "I'll bring you ten bushels of barley to pay for that." he said. Until organized relief measures came to the aid of the farmer the fuel problem was his greatest worry. You can drive a day at a time in some parts of Saskatchewan and never see a tree or a bush. Those farmers burned coal in the good days, but in their necessity they had no money with which to buy coal. So they burned barley. But they have caught a vision of better times, with the upward trend of the wheat market. Those courageous enough to hold their crop over from last year have sold it this summer, mostly in small lots, for a carload shipment would excite comment and perhaps invoke a seizure order from the bank, the implement agent or the mortgage company. So they have sold a lot of their grain a hundred bushels at a time and they are paying their small debts, preferably their store bills. They feel the banks, the implement companies and the mortgage companies can wait a bit longer for their money.... There will be money to spend in western Canada this year if the market price of grain keeps up. The farmer is starved for everything that contributes to the comfort and well-being of his family and as soon as he gets some surplus cash he will turn it loose into the avenues of trade" ....   [SOURCE]

<>1933oc14:Germany, under Nazi rule, withdrew from League of Nations and from its Disarmament Conference [DPH:472-3]
*--The Disarmament Conference was just then reconvening. Perhaps we should say "just then coming too" after being knocked out in its first phase

<>1933no:USA-USSR diplomatic relations restored based on USA formal recognition of USSR that summer [related documents—RFP2,2:59-67]
*--Fifteen years of non-recognition and, in general, USA isolationism in relationship to European problems was now coming to a close. A perception spread that the world was dividing along lines perceived as "progressive" on one side and "fascistic" on the other. Reluctantly FDR's administration saw itself forced to position itself in this starkly bifurcating world.  By now, however, the devastated US economy placed severe limits on just how effective US involvement could be

<>1933de:Japanese-Russian international relations described by USA Ambassador William Bullitt [Senn,2:]

<>1934:English philosophical historian Arnold Toynbee helped make sense out of confusing times for countless readers when he first published A Study of History [BMC1:688-94 | BMC4:782-8]
*--Toynbee, in a time of decline, helped popularize the notion of "The West" as an ascendant civilization [i.e., northwestern Europe and its North American off-shoot]. The concept had emerged over the previous half-century. The notion came to full blossom in the half century of Cold War at the end of the 20th century

<>1934:French artist André Breton, What is Surrealism? [CWC:368-86]
*--Breton rejected Tristan Tzara's "Dada" movement, with its influential two-decade-long emphasis on the unconscious, chaotic and irrational elements of creativity in the fine arts

<>1934:1937; German classicist Werner Jaeger, Paideia: die Formung des griechischen Menschen (3 volumes, Berlin and Leipzig:1934-1937; English translation)

<>1934:German physicist and Nobel Laureate Johannes Stark urged scientists to embrace Nazi racist doctrine and pitted "Jewish Science" versus "German Science" [P20:175]

<>1934:German-born (USA émigré) theoretical physicist Albert Einstein, "What is the Theory of Relativity?" [BPE:723-6]

<>1934:Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung (1875-) wrote "Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious" [BMC4:718-22 (includes excerpt from later work)]
*--Selections from Jung's works [TXT#1] [TXT#2]
*1908:Jung met Freud [ID] and was thrown into the psychological movement of the early 20th century. He soon found his own voice and broke with Freud. For one thing, he did not accept the nearly exclusively sexual inclination of Freudian analysis. He was more mystical, religious and anthropological in his psychology. He sought to understand what he called "the collective unconscious", a cluster of archetypical emotions, images and inclinations that helped identify the individual within the larger collective of general human consciousness and subconscious
\\
*--[W] [W]

<>1934:USA public intellectual Lewis Mumford published Technics and Civilization [CCS,2:18-39]

<>1934:1935; USA athlete, scholar, actor, singer, and increasingly an activist on behalf of blacks and other oppressed minorities, Paul Robeson, accepted an invitation from Sergei Eisenstein to visit the USSR. This was the beginning of a complex and troubled epoch of activism in Robeson's life [W]

<>1934wi:French political crisis threatened possibility of right-wing takeover [DPH:328-36]

<>1934ja:Stalin speech on relations of USSR with Capitalist States [RFP2,1:118-28 | ORW:205-7]

<>1934fe04:USA New Deal agency, FERA [ID], received report on the feasibility of establishing an agricultural colony in the Alaska Matanuska Valley. FDR ordered an end to the spontaneous settlement that had been filling Alaska habitable places since the days of Russian dominion. The Valley experienced 110 frost-free days. Sunshine was ample, 24 hours worth on June 21. Three years earlier, USA Department of Agriculture, working closely with the Alaska Railroad, supported experimental stations in Fairbanks and the Matanuska Valley. But by 1934, only about 100 families could be found scattered in the Valley. FDR now authorized Harry Hopkins to create a New Deal colony, the Alaska Rural Rehabilitation Corporation, and to fund it out of the Federal Treasury until it got on its own feet. FERA seized all previously abandoned claims to Matanuska land and began to design and build a colonial settlement and to recruit settlers from depression-hit Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan
*1935my22:Seward-Palmer train delivered the second group of immigrants. Now each of the 200 resettled families, by lot, was assigned a 40-acre plot
*1935je06:Anchorage Daily Times editorialized, "It would be li