cognitive dissonance - state of arousal or distress associated with inconsistent beliefs, or inconsistent beliefs and actions.

Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) -- "Peg turning" study

Inadequate justification -- decide we must like an activity because the external rewards are small (e.g., Festinger & Carlsmith)

Limitations on cognitive dissonance:

1. must perceive behavior as freely chosen

2. inconsistency must affect self-concept OR have important consequences for self or others

3. dissonance is reduced if we can self-affirm in another realm.

WWII and Nazi regime -- major impact on social psychology

Why did "normal people" do such horrible things?

Why did people obey the Nazis?

Milgram's studies at Yale, in the 1950's and 60's

Experimenter "assigned" roles to subjects:

Teacher (real subjects)

Learner (confederates)

confederate -- a person who works with an experimenter and plays a certain role in order to produce the experimental setting.

cover story -- what subjects are told about experiment

2/3 of subjects went "all the way" (450 volts)

ALL went to point when learner screamed

Authority cues

- Yale location

- Lab coat, scientist

- Demographic cues

- Unwavering experimenter

2 Experimenters disagree? "Teachers" stop shocks at point where they disagree.

Ambiguous situation - more likely to rely on social cues, other people

Another "teacher" refuses? Obedience drops from 65% to 10%

normative influence- desire to be liked, accepted and approved of

informational influence- desire to be correct, and understand how best to behave.

Factors affecting likelihood of conformity:

- Size of the group (3 is the magic number!)

- Importance of the group

- Unanimity of the group

Asch line studies - 1950's

- one dissenting confederate - conformity drops

answers given privately - conformity drops

Add'l factors affecting conformity:

- Situation is ambiguous

- Situation is a crisis

diffusion of responsibility - reduction in perceived individual responsibility, due to presence of other people.

2 reasons:

- self-serving interests

- informational component