Goals of Science: Description Prediction Explanation Control Theory:A set of statements that summarizes and organizes existing information about some phenomenon, provides an explanation for the phenomenon, and serves as a basis for making predictions to be tested empirically. Theory (another def.) - A logically organized set of propositions which serve to define events, describe relationships among events and explain the occurrence of these events. Hypothesis: An educated guess about a relationship between variables that is then tested empirically. Falsifiability: The quality of a theory such that it can be refuted by empirical tests, if it is wrong. The idea of falsifiability was advanced by philosopher of science, Karl Popper. Dependent Variable (DV): What we measure as an outcome. Independent Variable (IV): A variable on which the dependent variable depends; the factor of interest to the researcher. The different values or levels of the IV can be manipulated by the researcher, or the values may be attributes already possessed by the subjects in the research (e.g. age). subject variable - a variable that is a pre-existing attribute of the subjects chosen for a study; selected rather than manipulated by the experimenter (examples: gender, religion, HIV status) theoretical variable - concept of interest e.g.
depression
memory
operationalized variable - how you will measure or manipulate the concept of interest
e.g.
Beck Depression Inventory scores
# of words recalled in 5 minutes
Components of an introduction:
1) Why is your study important? Why should anyone care about what you found out?
2) Background for your topic--What important things are already known? What concepts need to be defined in order to understand your hypothesis?
3) What=s your hypothesis?
{Frequently comes before 3}
4) Overview of your study-- briefly, how do you propose to find the answer to your question?
Examples of correct citations to previous studies:
More than two authors? List them all the first time you cite the article:
A state of well-being is induced when chocolate is ingested (Hershey, Nestle, & Mars, 1990).
but the second time:
Subjects who ate more than their weight in chocolate got sick (Hershey et al., 1990).
More than one article to back up a fact? List articles in parentheses in alphabetic order:
Previous studies reveal a high correlation between chocolate consumption and obesity (Godiva, 1993; Hershey, 1986).
Authors of the paper as agents:
Godiva (1983) found that dark chocolate is a more effective aphrodisiac than milk chocolate.
The field is indebted to the seminal work of Hershey, Nestle and Mars (1990).
but:
Hershey et al. (1990) received the Nobel Chocolate Prize for these discoveries.
A
et@ (which is Latin for Aand@) has no period, but the Aal.@ does (it is an abbreviation of the Latin word for Aothers@).Quote sparingly, and provide the page number of the quote:
Despite the fact that it has been labeled
Athe most deadly of our daily pleasures@ (Godiva, 1993, p. 167), each American eats on average over 100 kilograms of chocolate a year.Cadbury and Dilettante (1987) note occasions when people have
Agone absolutely ballistic, willing to clobber anyone in their paths@ (p. 331) in order to obtain chocolate.
IRB = Institutional Review Board
A committee at any research institution (university, hospital, think-tank) that reviews the ethics of any study using live subjects.
RISKS to human subjects:
physical
psychological
social
Safeguards that encourage ethical behavior among research psychologists:
1) Peer/IRB Review
2) Informed Consent Forms
3) Debriefing
Basic components of CONSENT FORMS:
1) basic nature of study
2) any risk or inconvenience
3) disposition of data
4) conditions of participation
5) whom to see if they have complaints
Basic components of a DEBRIEF:
1) Assess subject
=s perception of study2)
ADehoax@--tell subjects about deception3) Educate
4) Desensitize--return subjects to a condition that is at least as good as when they began the study