Arius (250-336) & The Trinity

 

§         Previous unsuccessful explanations: Adoptionism; Modalism

§         318: Arius offers explanation of Trinity at council in Alexandria: the Son is a created being

§         Athanasius of Alexandria (296-373): Arianism's main opponent

§         Council of Nicea (325): 1st Ecumenical Council--addressed Arius & the Trinity

§         Debate over homoousias ("of the same essence") & homoiousias ("of like essence")

§         Nicea decides for homoousias; many still favored homoiousias--failed to resolve the issue

 

End of Arianism & Cappadocians

 

1.        325-37: Nicea to deat of Constantine--most visible unity

2.        337-61: Rule of Constantius--Arianism favored

3.        361-81: Revival of Nicene thinking

§         Holy Spirit added to discussion

§         Formula: 3 hypostases (entities/persons) in 1 ousia (essence/substance)

 

Cappadocian Fathers

 

·         Basil of Caesarea (d. 379); Gregory of Nyssa (d. 394); Gregory of Nazianzus (d. ca. 390)

·         Julian the Apostate (emp. 361-63)

·         To Young Men on the Value of Greek Literature; Catechetical Oration

 


The 1st Council of Constantinople (381; 2nd Ecumenical Council)

§         379: Theodosius becomes Emperor: makes Christianity official religion; paganism outlawed; favors Nicene Christianity--Arianism outlawed

§         Theodosius calls Council of Constantinople to reaffirm Nicea: adds Holy Spirit and clarifies

§         Council also decides first Christological controversy: how is Christ both human and divine?

§         Appollinaris: humanity= flesh; no human soul--replaced by word of God: not sufficiently human

 

The Council of Ephesus (431; 3rd Ecumenical Council)

§         2nd Christological controversy: Nestorius (Patriarch of Constantinople, 428)

§         Nest. strongly separated Christ's divinity & humanity: a split personality

§         Titles for the Virgin Mary: "Theotokos" (God-bearer) vs. "Christotokos" (Christ-bearer)

§         Opponents of Nestorius: Empress Pulcheria & Cyril (Patriarch) of Alexandria

§         Third council condemns Nestorius, endorses Theotokos: unity of subject in Christ emphasized

 

Christian Monasticism and Asceticism

 

§         Antony (ca. 250-356): becomes the "first monk" in 269

§         Athanasius' Life of Antony vs. the Letters of Antony

§         Anchoritic vs. Cenobitic monasticism: Pachomius (ca. 286-346); monastic "rules"

§         Benedict of Nursia (480-550): beginings of Western monasticism: Monte Cassino

 

Saints and Relics

 

·         Mediation & Intercession

·         Angels intercede: Zach 1.12-13; Job 33.22-26

·         Humans intercede: Gen., 20. 7, 17; Job, 42.8; Luke 16

·         Martyr to Monk; Relics

 

Women in Early Christianity

 

·         Jesus seems welcoming of women;

·         Paul—“neither male nor female”; veiling

·         Phoebe-“minister”; Junia-“apostle”; women as prophets

·         Split in Pauline Christianity: Pastorals & Thecla

·         Order of Widows: “virgins called widows”

·         Women and Asceticism

 

Augustine of Hippo (354-430)

 

§         Life: Confessions; Manicheanism

§         Milan & Ambrose; converts to Christianity in 386

§         Controversy with Pelagius: Free will and Original Sin (410-430)

§         Marriage and Virginity: Virginity better, but marriage good

 

The Council of Chalcedon (451; 4th Ecumenical Council)

 

§         Eutyches: Christ's divine nature absorbed his human nature: not sufficiently human

§         448: local council condemns Eutyches; 449: Dioscorus (Patriarch) of Alexandria has a council at Ephesus defend him; declared doctrine of one divine nature in Christ="Monophysitism"

§         Pope Leo opposed, but emperor Theodosius II supported

§         28 July 450: Theodosius dies; Pulcheria obtains power; calls council of Chalcedon

§         Chalcedonian Definition: "two natures joined in one hypostasis (entity/person)"

 

After Chalcedon: Christianity in the Early Byzantine Empire

 

§         Anti-Chalcedonian riots in Jerusalem and Alexandria; resistence in Egypt, Syria, Palestine

§         Monophysites”; “Diophysites”; Neo-Chacedonians

§         Zeno (emp. 474-75; 476-91); Basiliscus (emp. 475-91); Henotikon

§         Anastasius (491-518); Justin (emp. 518-27); Justinian (emp. 527-65); Theodora

§         Theopaschism: The Suffering of God: 533

§         2nd Council of Constantinople (5th ecumenical council); condemns “3 Chapters”

§         Theodore of Mopsuestia (ca. 350-428) – impt. influence on Nestorius

§         Theodoret of Cyrrhus (393-460); Ibas of Edessa (bp. 435-457) – later sympathizers with Nestorius

§         Aphthartodocetism: Christ had incorruptible body—not fully human

§         Birth of “Monophysite” church: Jacob Baraddeus, Syria, 542-78; Egypt

§         Today in Egypt, Syria, Armenia, India, Ethiopia

§         Nationalism?; Persecution of Anti-Chalcedonians

 

Christianity and the Fall of Rome

 

Barbarians & the Western Roman Empire

§         Theodosius I redivides empire, East & West (395): different fates

§         476: Fall of Rome; 1453: Fall of Roman/Byzantine Empire

§         The Goths: pushed into Roman Empire by Huns: 370s; allowed to settle in Roman Empire; revolt

§         Battle of Adrianople (378): Goths defeat Romans; 410 Goths sack Rome; settle in Italy, Spain

§         The Vandals: 407 crossed the Rhine; 429 N. Africa; 431 Carthage; 455 sacked Rome; ruled N. Africa until 533

§         476: last Western Roman emperor deposed; “replaced” by Barbarian kingdoms; Barbarian rulers were Arians

§         Gaul/France: Burgundians (South/Arians) & Franks (North/Pagans); Meroveus/ Merovingians

§         Clovis: conversion 496; orthodox, not Arian

 

The Rise of the Papacy

§         Bishop Stephen I—255

§         382—Pope Damasus

§         Leo the Great (440-61); convinced Atilla the Hun not to sack Rome (452); Vandals not to burn city (455)

§         Byzantine reconquest of Italy; appearance of Lombards (568); Pelagius II pays not to sack Rome (579)

§         Gregory the Great (540-604; Pope from 590): negotiated peace with Lombards; secured food supply; rebuilt Rome

§         Extended authority: converted Spain; mission to convert England; theologian & reformer; Gregorian chants; Purgatory

 

Early Christianity outside the Roman Empire

 

§         Armenia: 314 adopts Christianity, Gregory the Illuminator; Georgia: 330, Nino; 387: divided by Rome & Persia

§         Christianity in Persia: Seleucia-Ctesiphon; 225-Sassanids, restore Zoroastrianism, persecute other religions

§         Persian Christians=“Nestorian”—rejected Ephesus; the Assyrian Church of the East; Chaldeans; missions

§         Nestorian missions: central Asian/Huns, early 6th cent

§         China: 635; 980, disappeared; 13th–14th cents., reintroduced by Mongols

§         India: Thomas; before 300, under authority of Persian church

§         Arabia: “Nestorian” & Monophysite tribes; S. Arabia: 356 mission

§         Ethiopia: Axum; Christianity ca. 350; Nubia: Christian 6th-15th cents.

 

 

Maximus, Monothelitism, and the End of Antiquity

 

§         602: Persia conquers much of Eastern Empire

§         622: Heraclius (610-41) begins reconquest; 628 captures Persian capital

§         Attempts to restore religious unity: Monothelitism (“one-will”)-official “orthodoxy” 633

§         6th Ecumenical council condemns: Constantinople III (681); Maronites/Lebanon

§         Maximus: 655 tried for treason, mutilated; exiled to Lazica (Georgia)

§         Deification / Theosis: John 10:34-5; 2 Peter 1.4; John 17.21; Romans 8.19-22

§         Islam: Muhammad (570-632): Mecca (611-21); Medina (621-30); 630: sack of Mecca

§         Began conquests, jihad; 644: Persia destroyed; Byzantium seriously diminished

§         635-Damascus; 638-Jerusalem & Antioch; 646-Egypt